Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 13

Research - Essay Example Despite the discovery, it is also vital to note the role of traditional design efforts, which focused on value rather than user feeling. Having landed in the discipline of interest provides a feeling of satisfaction to undertake various things in the field of design. My training contributes to user centred design in a number of ways. With regards to visibility, a user centred design should have a mental model that predicts significant elements such as navigation in the design. Additionally, it should offer accessibility through colour coding and organised information that allows viewers easy access. It is vital to note that my discipline plays a crucial role in initiating these factors. Moreover, legibility and language of user centred design should be appropriate. Evidently, my discipline is a key player in inducing ornamental designer fonts with rhetorical assistance; nonetheless, it ensures language used in any design remains relevant and understandable. From an aesthetic angle, the world is gradually transforming in terms of human taste and preferences. The change has left designers with a myriad of challenges on the direction to take. in response, a series of creativity initiatives have prevailed in the artistic world. Additionally, the human surrounding is continually changing with the continued development. The expansive development is taking away the aesthetic value, in the process replacing it with contemporary outlooks. These changes are driving designers to current survival techniques that constitute user centred design. Historically, the journey of design has traversed through different elements of design. It started with the reconnaissance period where designers had an upper hand in their products. They had autonomy to choose the colouring system, what to include in their design and even contextual components. It was a

Friction Lab Essay Example for Free

Friction Lab Essay Discussion and Review Whenever a body slides along another body a resisting force is called into play that is known as friction. This is a very important force and serves many useful purposes. A person could not walk without friction, nor could a car propel itself along a highway without the friction between the tires and the road surface. On the other hand, friction is very wasteful. It reduces the efficiency of machines because work must be done to overcome it and this energy is wasted as heat. The purpose of this experiment is to study the laws of friction and to determine the coefficient of friction between two surfaces. THEORY Friction is the resisting force encountered when one surface slides over another. This force acts along the tangent to the surfaces in contact. The force necessary to overcome friction depends on the nature of the materials in contact, on their roughness or smoothness, and on the normal force but not on the area of contact or on the speed of the motion. We find experimentally that the force of friction is directly proportional to the normal force. When an object is sitting on a horizontal surface the normal force is just the weight of the object. However, if the object is on an incline then it is not equal to the weight but is calculated by N= mg cos ÃŽ ¸. The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of friction,  µ. When the contacting surfaces are actually sliding one over the other the force of friction is given by Equation 1: Ffr =  µk FN where Ffr is the force of friction and is directed parallel to the surfaces and opposite to the direction of motion. FN is the normal force and  µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The subscript k stands for kinetic, meaning that  µk is the coefficient that applies when the surfaces are moving  one with respect to the other.  µk is therefore more precisely called the coefficient of kinetic or sliding friction. Note carefully that Ffris always directed opposite to the direction of motion. This means that if you reverse the direction of sliding, the frictional force reverses too. In short, friction is always against you. Friction is called a non-conservative force because energy must be used to overcome it no matter which way you go. This is in contrast to what is called a conservative force such as gravity, which is against you on the way up but with you on the way down. Thus, the energy expended in lifting an object may be regained when the object descends. Yet, the energy used to overcome friction is dissipated, which means it is lost or made unavailable as heat. As you will see in your later study of  physics the distinction between conservative and non-conservative forces is a very important one that is fundamental to our concepts of heat and energy.  A method of checking the proportionality of Ffr, and FNand of determining the proportionality constant  µk is to have one of the surfaces in the form of a plane placed horizontally with a pulley fastened at one end. The other surface is the bottom face of a block that rests on the plane and to which is attached a weighted cord that passes over the pulley. The weights are varied until the block moves at constant speed after having been started with a slight push. Since there is no acceleration, the net force on the block is zero, which means that the frictional force is equal to the tension in the cord. This tension, in turn, is equal to the total weight attached to the cords end. The normal force between the two surfaces is equal to the weight of the block and can be increased by placing weights on top of the block. Thus, corresponding values of Ffr,and FN can be found, and plotting them will show whether Ffrand FN are indeed proportional. The slope of this graph gives  µk. When a body lies at rest on a surface and an attempt is made to push it, the pushing force is opposed by a frictional force. As long as the pushing force is not strong enough to start the body moving, the body remains in equilibrium. This means that the frictional force automatically adjusts itself to be equal to the pushing force and thus to just be enough to balance it. However, there is a threshold value of the pushing force beyond which larger values will cause the body to break away and slide. We  conclude that in the static case where a body is at rest the frictional force automatically adjusts itself to keep the body at rest up to a certain maximum. But if static equilibrium demands a frictional force larger than this maximum, static equilibrium conditions will cease to exist because this force is not available and the body will start to move. This situation may be expressed in equation form as: Equation 2: Ffr ≠¤  µsFN or Ffr max =  µsFN Where Ffris the frictional force in the static case, Ffr max is the maximum value this force can assume and  µsis the coefficient of static friction. We find that  µsis slightly larger than  µk. This means that a somewhat larger force is needed to break a body away and start it sliding than is needed to keep it sliding at constant speed once it is in motion. This is why a slight push is necessary to get the block started for the measurement of  µk. One way of investigating the case of static friction is to observe the so-called limiting angle of repose. This is defined as the maximum angle to which an inclined plane may be tipped before a block placed on the plane just starts to slide. The arrangement is illustrated in Figure 1 above. The block has weight W whose component WcosÃŽ ¸ (where ÃŽ ¸ is the plane angle) is perpendicular to the plane and is thus equal to the normal force, FN. The component Wsin ÃŽ ¸is parallel to the plane and constitutes the force urging the block to slide down the plane. It is opposed by the frictional force Ffr, As long as the block remains at rest, Ffr must be equal to W sin ÃŽ ¸. If the plane is tipped up until at some value ÃŽ ¸max the block just starts to slide, we have: Equation 3: But: Hence: Or: Thus, if the plane is gradually tipped up until the block just breaks away and the plane angle is then measured, the coefficient of static friction is equal to the tangent of this angle, which is called the limiting angle of repose. It is interesting to note that W cancelled out in the derivation of Equation 3 so that the weight of the block doesnt matter. PROCEDURE This experiment requires you to record measurements in Newtons. Remember that in SI units the unit of force is called the Newton (N). One Newton is the force required to impart an acceleration of 1m/s2 to a mass of 1 kg. Thus 1 N = 1 kg.m/s2. You can convert any kg-mass to Newtons by multiplying the kg-weight by 9.8 m/s2, i.e., 100 g = 0.1 kg = 0.1 x 9.8 = .98 N. 1. Determining force of kinetic or sliding friction and static friction a. The wooden blocks provided in the LabPaq are too light to give good readings so you need to put some weight on  them, such as a full soft drink can. Weigh the plain wood block and the object used on top of the block. Record the combined weight in grams and Newtons. b. Place the ramp board you provided horizontally on a table. If necessary tape it down at the ends with masking tape to keep if from sliding. c. Begin the experiment by setting the block and its weight on the board with its largest surface in contact with the surface of the board. Connect the blocks hook to the 500-g spring scale. d. Using the spring scale, slowly pull the block lengthwise along the horizontal board. When the block is moving with constant speed, note the force indicated on the scale and record. This is the approximate kinetic or sliding frictional force. Repeat two more times. e. While carefully watching the spring scale, start the block from rest. When the block just starts to move, note the force indicated on the scale and record. You should notice that this requires more force. This force is  approximately equal to the static frictional force. Repeat two more times. Determining coefficient of static friction using an inclined surface a. Place the plain block with its largest surface in contact on the board while the board is lying flat. b. Slowly raise one end of the board until the block just breaks away and starts to slide down. Be very careful to move the plane slowly and smoothly so as to get a precise value of the angle with the horizontal at which the block just breaks away. This is the limiting angle of repose ÃŽ ¸ max. Measure it with a protractor (see photo that follows for an alternate way of measuring the angle) and record the result. You may also want to measure the base and the height of the triangle formed by the board, the support, and the floor or table. The height divided by the length of the base equals the coefficient of static friction. Remember: c. Perform two more trials. These trials should be independent. This means that in each case the plane should be returned to the horizontal, the block placed on it, and the plane carefully moved up until the limiting angle of repose is reached. DATA TABLE 6 Height Base Length ÃŽ ¸ max  µs Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average Calculations 1. Using the mass of the block and the average force of kinetic friction from Data Table 1, calculate the coefficient of kinetic friction from Equation 1: 2. Using the mass of the block and the average force of kinetic friction from Data Table 2, calculate the coefficient of kinetic friction for the wood block sliding on its side. Record your result and see how it compares with the value of  µkobtained from Data Table 1. 3. From the data in Data Table 3, 4 5 compute the coefficient of static friction,  µsfor, the glass surface on wood, the sandpapered surface on wood, and wood on carpet, etc from each of your three trials. Calculate an average value of  µs.Record your results in your own data sheets. 4.  From the data obtained in Data Table 6 calculate  µsfor wood on wood from each of your three trials. 5.  Calculate an average value of  µs. Record your result on the data sheet. Questions A. How does the coefficient of static friction compare with the coefficient of kinetic friction for the same surfaces and areas? B. Why is it important to reduce friction during the operation of machinery? C. How does grease or oil affect the coefficient of friction?

Philosophy of Teaching Essay Example for Free

Philosophy of Teaching Essay Philosophy of teaching is a self-reflective statement of your beliefs about teaching and learning. It discuss how you put your beliefs in practice by including concrete examples of what you do or anticipate doing in class. My teaching philosophy is ‘participatory learning’. It a type of learning process whereby learners are put in the centre of every learning situation, in other words pupils take active part of the lesson presentation. . I hold this belief in the sense that, when children are involve actively in the lesson delivery with the relevant teaching methods and techniques and also appropriate learning materials, it’s inspires them to explore and take up their own responsibility. This belief once again, gives children the opportunities to discuss, talk and ask questions. It also allow the teacher to listen to the children and see how their understanding is developing, it makes learning permanent in any learning situation. Validity of my philosophy To validate my philosophy, James Hartley (1998) said that activity is very important in learning. Learning is better when the learner is active rather than passive; therefore learning by doing is to be applauded. My teaching style can best be described as one that incorporates different methods and techniques that encourages learners to be active participant in the delivering of lesson. By engaging students in variety of activities that address each child’s learning style, I believe that they will achieve academic success and build the self confidence. Learning occurs when a student is fully encouraged in the process, make a personal connection with the information taught and apply the knowledge to variety of experiences. When this happened the child is inspired to become engaged over and over again, make connections and apply his or her knowledge. Application of my philosophy I understand the importance of using participatory learning to appropriately address the different learning styles and needs of students in order to become effective in the near future. Consequently, it is extremely important to determine each child’s dominated learning style and continually monitor each student’s academic progress through a variety of assessment in order to plan instructions that draw upon each child’s strength to improve academic development. With my teaching philosophy in mind, I try my best to prepare my lesson before time, rehearse on my own base on the teaching and learning materials prepared and available. Introduction of which is an important part of lesson delivery is done first based on the relevant previous knowledge of student then proceed to tell them objectives of the lesson and the future benefit of the topic. In doing so the learner become informed of what would be discussed as the lesson proceed, they think critically and consciously about each objectives. For example I taught the topic shapes and space with the sub topic solid shapes. I used variety of relia like Milo tin, milk tins paper boxes, match boxes, etc. During the presentation stage l allowed pupils to have a look at the TLMs. Teacher then assisted pupils to explore the materials and came out with their own findings. Pupils discussed their findings to identify the shapes as solid shapes while teacher served as a facilitator. Teacher also assisted pupils to identify the parts of the various solid shapes talked about. Likewise in all the topics I treated during the program I used methods and techniques that allowed pupils to fully participate in the lessons. Such techniques include activity method, demonstration, discussion, games, etc. As a teacher I only served as a facilitator and guide to all the activities that went on during teaching and learning process. Effectiveness This philosophy â€Å"participatory learning† with the needed teaching and learning materials is very effective as it enhance pupils taking part fully in the lesson that is they communicate, ask questions, write down points and share ideas with friends. Conclusion I will therefore conclude that when a teacher impact knowledge by involving pupils in every activity or lesson, with appropriate, adequate and suitable learning materials using a variety of teaching techniques such as demonstration, dramatization and role play, the teacher will achieve his or her set goals and get the needed feedback from pupils. This also makes learning more practical and permanent.

Globalisation and Formula One

Globalisation and Formula One ABSTRACT It is often argued whether motorsport is a proper sport, and thus can be examined as such by researchers. In this essay, Formula One, for many the most important form of motorsport, is compared to established sports such as football and the Olympic Games, in terms of structure, their respective governing bodies, and their characteristics. For the latter, it has been discussed whether Formula One is a socio-cultural sport or a commercial one, as these are identified by K. Foster. Moreover, the role televison played into growing the sports popularity is examined. Finally, there has been a comparison between two important personalities of football and Formula One, Dr Joao Havelange and Bernie Ecclestone respectively, in an attempt to examine to what extent individuals can have an influence on a sports development. Introduction Ever since the replacement of post modernity with globalisation as the predominant social theory (T. Miller et al, 2001), academics of sport have taken an interest on International Sport Governing bodies and their role in an era where, (according to the hyperglobalist tradition at least (D. Held et all, 1999), nation states and their institutions are going into decline. The two most commonly mentioned (and researched) International Sport Institutions are FIFA ( J. Sugden and A. Tomlinson 1999, J. Sugden and A. Tomlinson 2003), (the International Federation of Football Associations) and the IOC   (the International Olympic Committee), (M. Roche, 2000). These are the respective governing bodies of football and the Olympic Games worldwide, and subsequently responsible of staging the worlds two most popular sporting events; the FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games. This essay will attempt to investigate in what extent does a slightly different sport, motor racing (through its most popu lar discipline, F1 GP racing), complies with the trademarks in world sport organisation set by the aforementioned institutions. For this purpose, I have opted to compare the structure of   FIFA and the FIA (Federation Internationale de l Automobile), as well as the two sports (from their league structure point of view mainly),. Before that, however, I have decided to outline some of the characteristics of motor sport, which make it defer from mainstream bodily sports, as well as clarify some definitions and terminology that is widely used to describe it. Moreover, I have seeked to make a comparison between the two individuals that transformed these two organisations into what they are today: Dr Joao Havelange and Bernie Ecclestone. The role of these individuals within the structures of the Fedrations will be examined, taking into account the existing theories concerning agency, which try to understand the role individuals can play in a social system. Specifically, the essay will focus on the impact Havelange (as FIFA president from 1974-1998) and Ecclestone (as F1s commercial rights holder) had in what Miller refers to as Televisualisation (Miller et all, op. cit. p. 4) of sport. Televisualisation, along with Commodification (ibid, p. 4), will be further discussed, as they were the key factors that resulted in the economic growth of both FIFA and FIA, by being the marketing tools for boosting the image of football and motor racing worldwide. As a conclusion, some thoughts about the commercial future of Formula One will be outlined, mostly influenced by Sugden and Tomlinsons thoughts on the future of FIFA (J. Sugden and A. Tomlinson 2005). Unfortunately, due to the relative lack of scholarly sources on motor racing, historical information has been gathered mostly from journalistic sources, with every attempt made to ensure these are credible ones. The same applies to information acquired from the World Wide Web, where only established sites (such as the FIA official site, the Financial Times and the European Union) have been used. Finally, as most of the original notes for this essay had been in Greek, I have used the Oxford Greek-English Learners Dictionary as a reference (D. N. Stavropoulos, 2004). The nature of Motor Sport Due to its peculiarities, motor sport is not a popular participant sport, unlike football. Whereas football is easy to play, requiring minimum equipment such as a ball and two posts, and can take any place in any open space, motor sport is centred around such a sophisticated equipment as a racing car, which is very expensive to purchase and run, and it is restricted to specifically designed race tracks. Many consider it not to be a proper sport; First, because a drivers ability is compromised by the competitiveness of his or her equipment, and therefore not always the most capable can challenge for victory, if they are not well-equipped. Secondly, because mainstream sport in most cases involves an athlete physically using his/her body to perform. A person sitting on a car is not considered as a true athlete, although in the higher disciplines, such as F1, a driver has to endure lateral forces of up to 4g for approximately 1 and a half hour (the average duration of a GP race), and at the same time being completely concentrated in order to achieve consecutive laps with accuracy of tenths of a second. Motor Sport has various disciplines, which, unlike many other sports, are available for representatives of both genders to participate in and compete against each other. The motor sport discipline whose structure will be compared to football will be Formula One, for many the highest echelon of motor racing (Table 1). More specifically, with Formula One we refer to the Formula One World Championship, which is regulated by the FIA.   Racing Type Power Output (in bhp) Champ Car 750 Formula 1 750 F1 equivalency Formula 750 Indy Racing League 670 Grand Prix Masters 650 GP2 580 A1GP 520 Table   1: (Power outputs of racing categories (F1Racing magazine 2006) Definitions What is Formula One The name Formula One was only introduced in 1947 when racing activities resumed after the 2nd World War. Formula 1 was actually a code used to identify the technical regulations under which grand prix cars should be run at the races. Formula 1 racing began in 1947 therefore, although only in 1950 was a World Championship for Formula one cars organised (A. Cimarosti). However, F1 as a discipline exists in other sports as well, for example powerboating. What is a Grand Prix The first Grand Prix (grand prize) for automobiles was organised as such for the first time in 1906 by the AFC (Automobile Club de France) (ibid). Ever since it has become almost synonymous with big motor sport events, and with Formula One since the inception of the World Championship in 1950. The term Grand Prix though is also used in other sports, such as motorcycle racing and some IAAF meetings. Ownership of Formula One the FIA The FIA owns the name Formula One World Championship'(www. fia.com. 2006). In their website the FIA describe themselves as a non-profit making association (www.fia.com/thefia/Organisation/organisation.html 2006) who, since its birth in 1904, (it) has been dedicated to representing the interests of motor organisations and motor car users throughout the world. It is also the governing body of motor sport worldwide (ibid).   Today it consists of 213 national motoring organisations from 125 countries (www.fia.com/thefia/Membership/index_membershtml, 2006). We should bear in mind that unlike for example FIFA, which only has authority over football, the FIA is responsible for all the types of car racing (rallying, racing, hill climbing etc), but that does not include motorcycle racing, which is the responsibility of the FIM (Federation International of Motorcycle). The date of its foundation suggests it was conceived during a time when, according to Miller again, it was Europes high point for setting in place the global governance of sport. Miller points out that most of the worlds governing bodies were founded after the proclamation of the Olympic movement at the turn of the century; he also goes on to mention the establishment of equivalents for football, cricket, athletics and tennis (T. Miller et al, op. cit. p. 10 ). However, one of the peculiarities of the FIA is that it is not entirely a sporting body (see Table 2). FIA General Assembly FIA President Deputy President  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   FIA Senate  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Deputy President (Mobility and Automobile)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (Sport) FIA World Council for Mobility and the Automobile  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   World Motor Sport Council Mobility and Automobile Commissions  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sporting Commissions International Court of appeal Secretariat Table 2. The structure of the FIA (www.fia.com, 2006 ). Instead, the FIA consists of the World council for Mobility and the Automobile, and the World Motor Sport council. The World Motor Sport Council is the world governing body of the FIA Formula One World Championship. This is the sporting branch of the FIA under whose jurisdiction come all forms of international motor sport involving land vehicles with four or more wheels.  Ã‚   Of significant importance is the existence of the FIA International Court of Appeal, which is the final appeal tribunal for international motor sport. ()Iit resolves disputes brought before it by any motor sports National Sporting Authorities worldwide, or by the President of the FIA. It can also settle non-sporting disputes brought by national motor racing organisations affiliated to the FIA (www.fia.com/thefia/Court_of_appeal/index.html, 2006). The existence of the International Court of Appeal within the FIA structure points out to what Ken Foster refers to private justice among global sporting organisations. He argues that the intent [] is to create a zone of private justice within the sporting field of regulation that excludes judicial supervision or intervention with the decision-making process of international sporting federations. It denies athletes -[and teams]- access to national courts and leaves them dependent on the arbitrary justice of the international sporting federation themselves. Athletes can claim redress only from an arbitration panel created and appointed by the international sporting federation itself [], (K. Foster, 2005). It appears that the FIA has followed FIFAs and the IOCs example, in taking advantage of the difficulties of monitoring INGOs. Foster underlines that states are unwilling or incapable of challenging the power of international sporting federations[] (ibid. p.68). In addition, he points out alternative ways of avoiding legal scrutiny by making it compulsory in their rules that disputes go only to private arbitration,   and by asking athletes to sign agreements not tot take legal action against international sporting federations'(ibid. p.69). Indeed, according to Allison, [modern sport] has developed highly autonomous international organisations () (L. Allison and T Monnington, 2005). In the same text, Foster has previously commented on the general attitude of powerful sporting bodies: Historically, sport has been governed by management structures that were hierarchical and authoritarian. Their ideology, and often their legal form, was that of a private club (). The commercialisation, and the later commodification [which will be discussed later on this essay] of sport put pressure on their legal form. Private clubs began to exercise significant economic power over sport. (). International sporting bodies, as federations of national associations, in turn organised global sport. () the need for due process in decision-making and the need to prevent abuses of dominant power within the sport were two important consequences of this [the] legal intervention (K Foster, in Allison, 2005).  Ã‚   So far it appears that the FIA is complying with the models of regulation of FIFA and the IOC in certain aspects, such as being an International Non-Government- Organisation (INGO). But, because of its very nature, the motor sport governing body does not entirely follow FIFAs and the IOCs patterns. For example, Sugden and Tomlinson (again), argue that drawing upon Archers classification of types of international organisations, (C. Archer, 1992), () since its foundation in 1904, FIFA has transformed itself from and INGO (International Non-Government- Organisation) into a BINGO (Business International Non-Government Organisation (), (J Sugden and A Tomlinson, 2005).   They go on to comment that FIFAs reason for existence has been increasingly profit-driven () and has become a   leading example of the professionalisation and commercialisation of modern sport (), (Ibid. p.27). From a capitalistic point of view, one would assume that it would be normal for every organisation to seek p rofit. Sugden and Tomlinson, though, observe that such commercial activity coming from INGOs is illegal, and refer to Morozovs claim: As Morozov states, the aims and activities of an international organisation must be in keeping with the universally accepted principles of international law embodied in the charter of the United Nations and must not have a commercial character or pursue profit-making aims, ( G. Morozov, (1997). ( However, the FIA cannot be considered to belong in the category of INGOs becoming BINGOs. Like FIFA and the IOC, it has opted to locate its corresponding offices in Switzerland (www.fia.com/global/contacts .html, 2006), something which, as Sugden and Tomlinson point out, underlines [FIFAs] political and fiscal autonomy (and unaccountability), ( J Sugden and A Tomlinson, 1998); but it has not directly benefited economically by promoting the Formula One World Championship. Although it states that part of its resources shall be derived from income arising directly or indirectly from sporting activities, including the FIA champions (www.fia.com/thefia/statutes/Files/index, 2006), hips, it cannot benefit directly from exploiting Formula Ones and other FIA championships commercial rights. Foster, again, gives a detailed account of how the case of motor sport became a unique example of governmental intrusion into a global sporting bodys self-regulation, ( K Foster, in Allison 2005). According to a European Commission principal, a governing body of sport needs to separate its regulation of the sport from its commercial activities in promoting events and in maximising their commercial value; a governing body must not use its regulatory functions improperly to exclude its commercial rivals from the sport (Official European Journal, 13/06/01, Cases COMP/35.163: COMP/36.638; COMP/36.776. GTR/FIA others, 2005). It is suggested that FIA used its monopoly positio n by the threat of imposing sanctions to drivers, circuits, teams and promoters who wouldnt grant them exclusivity, thus rendering them unable to compete in rival series. Moreover, broadcasters who televised rival events were given least favourable agreements (K Foster in Allison, 2005). The result of the European Commissions intervention was the change of regulations on behalf of the FIA: They insisted on a complete separation of the regulatory function of FIA, as the governing body of the sport, and its commercial function of exploiting the broadcasting rights to all motor sport events under its jurisdiction. The separation is (was) designed to prevent conflicts of interest. The Commission also limited the extent to which FIA, as the regulator of the sport, can take measures to prevent rival promoters of events competing with FIAs events. The Commission wanted to separate the function of the FIA in promoting events (and thereby gaining commercial benefit) from that of licensing events as part of its regulatory function. The role of a governing body, according to the Commission, is to act fairly and create a level playing field so that all promoters of events are treated equally and carefully (Ibid. p.84). Foster justifies the Commissions decision thus: The differen t approach by the Commission can be explained because motor sport is a globalised, rather than an internationalised, sport. It had a commercial structure of management and offered no cultural or social justification of its anti-competitive behaviour. As such it was subject to normal commercial criteria in its regulation, (Ibid); and goes on to comment that this example may be unusual in that there was an excessive intermingling of the regulatory and commercial functions within the governing structures of international motor sport. However, it indicates that regional regulation can be effective and that the fear that globalised sport can escape all regulation and be immune from legal intervention may be exaggerated (Ibid).   Structure of the FIA Formula One World Championship Indeed, the structure of the FIA Formula One World Championship seems very much to resemble the American (commercial) model of sport, although being originally a European concept, as described above. Foster, once again, offers the key characteristics in American and European sport. (see Table 3.) European (socio-cultural) American (Commercial) Organisational motive Sporting Competition Profit League structure Open Pyramid. Promotion and relegation Closed league; ring-fenced Governing bodys role Vertical solidarity; sport for all Profit maximisation; promote elite stars as celebrities Cultural Identity National leagues; local teams. Opposition to relocation of teams transnational leagues Transnational or global leagues; footloose franchises International Competitions Important for National Identity Non-existent or minimal Structure of governance Single representative federal body League or commissioner Table 3. (European model of sport vs American model of sport),   (Ibid. p.74). By attempting to compare the structures of football and Formula One, we can relatively easily identify that the former belongs to the European tradition. It was indeed conceived as a sporting competition first and foremost. It is rather doubtful that there had been a plan to make profit out of football when the FA was founded in 1886. The open pyramid system is adopted, with clubs being promoted and relegated form the divisions of their national leagues, depending on their performance. Football has been conceived as a sport for all, and FIFAs initiatives such as the goal project confirm this (J Sugdan and A Tomlinson, 2003). Moreover, with the existence of events such as the FIFA World Cup which is exclusively contested for by National teams, the importance of national identity in football is displayed. Finally, the FIFA remains the only representative body for the sport.   In contrast, the structure of the FIA Formula One World Championship complies in general terms with the Ameri can (commercial one), although with few noticeable exceptions. It should be noted that, before starting to analyse Formula One racing using this model, we can identify in its nature all but one of the strands that are identified by Scholte, (A. J. Scholte, 2000). The only one absent is Internationalisation, as there are no international competitions in Formula One. Instead, it is an entirely globalised sport. There are no national Formula One championships. The only Formula One championship organised today is the World Championship. Liberalisation, universalisation and, most importantly, globalisation are all evident: Liberalisation: There are no cross border restrictions in Formula One, as it does not operate on a national level. The races can be held in any country, provided it has an FIA- affiliated national sporting body, and drivers and teams can come form any country as well. Universalisation: ()A global sport () needs to be simple in its structure and thus readily understood by those who have never played the game before, (Foster, in Allison, p. 66). This is more than evident in Formula One, whereas although most people are unlikely to have driven a Formula One car in full racing trim, unless they are professional racing drivers, they can easily understand its concept, that the faster car wins the race.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Globalisation/ Americanisation: Rationalisation of Formula One has been achieved since its conception in 1950. Written rules were adopted and a championship was organised in order to rationally identify (Ibid), the best driver, (and the best team in 1958 with the introduction of the Constructors championship). In addition, it also complies with imperialism and westernization. Foster comments that Developing countries are excluded because they have fewer facilities (). Sports like motor racing require massive technical capital that excludes them (Ibid). De-Territorialisation: Foster observes that we have global broadcasting of sport and global fans; (Ibid. p.67), and goes on to quote Giulianotti: Globalisation brings with it a disembedding of local social and political ties between club [-in Formula Ones case, team] and community (R. Giulianotti, 2005). This is again present in the case of Formula One. As races are not contested in the teams home grounds, but rather, in race tracks scattered throughout the world,   there is not much connection between their national identity (with the exception of Ferrari, who still carries some sense of Italian-ness). Re-location for Formula One teams is usual, provided this gives them a better chance of winning. Hence, Renault are based in Enstone, UK, Toyota in Cologne, Germany, etc. Furthermore, the ease with which teams can change their identity overnight is unique: The tartan-liveried team of former Scottish triple World Champion Jackie Stewart, founded in 1997 was turned into Jaguar in 2000, proudly painted in British Racing Green colour, and Red Bull in 2005, after the name of an Austrian-made energy drink. The globalised nature of Formula One (especially in its difference to internationalised sport) has also been identified by Houlihan: Globalised sport () has rootless teams, with multi national or nationally ambiguous teams ( B. Houlihan, 2005), [for example McLaren are a British team, founded by a New Zealander (Bruce McLaren), have a German engine provider (Mercedes) and their drivers come from Finland (Kimi Raikkonen) and Colombia (Juan Pablo Montoya)]. These rootless, de-territorialised sports are often typified by their identification with commercial sponsors. [for example Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro, and Mild Seven Benetton Renault F1 Team]. Formula One teams are defined by their manufacturers, such as Ferrari (Ibid).  Ã‚  Ã‚   Going back to the American vs European model, we have already argued that although Formula One racing was conceived in Europe on the turn of the 20th century, its current management has rendered it a primarily profit-making sport. One could argue that until 1968, when cigarette advertising (and generally corporate advertising) appeared in Formula One, (http://8w.forix.com/love.html, see also http://8w.forix.com/myths.html, 2005), the sport belonged to the European tradition. Up until then, any profit made was incidental, not central. Only starting and prize money was available to the competitors. In the 1970s, with sponsorship cash and television money heavily influencing the sport (P. Menard, 2004), Formula One became a profit-making sport. The role of television coverage in that will be discussed later in the essay. As for the league structure of Formula One, it is totally commercial. As mentioned before, there is only one Formula One contest, the World Championship. Entry to it is not based on a promotion system, but strictly on capitalistic values. In other words, only those who can afford it can enter. A recent example was that of the new Super Aguri racing team. Although the rules state   that applications to compete in the Championship may be submitted to the FIA () two years prior to the Championship in which the applicant wishes to compet (),   (www.fia.com /resources/documents/, 2006), the team applied in autumn 2005. However, the application was successful. On January 2006, FIA issued the following statement: Following receipt of the necessary financial guarantee and with the unanimous support of the competing teams, the FIA has accepted the late entry of the Super Aguri F1 Team to the 2006 Formula One World Championship, (http://www.motorsport.com/news/article.asp?ID=208865FS=F1, 2 006). This incident is characteristic of an American-type closed league, as Foster describes it: The entry [to the league] is controlled by the incumbents. There is a fixed number of teams in the league [in Formula Ones case, the highest number of cars that can take part in the Championship is 24] with no relegation. New teams cannot break into the closed shop unless the league decides that its overall economic wealth will be improved by expansion franchises. The economic risks of sporting failure are reduced and this makes capital investment in a team franchise more attractive (K. Foster, in Allison (2005), p. 75). In terms of the Governing bodys role, it is also an occasion where F1 follows the American model. Vertical solidarity is non-existent, as there are no lower Formula One leagues. Even for motor sport in general, Formula One revenues are not redistributed to lower formulae, and there is no effort to make motor racing a sport for all. Only whoever can afford motor racing can enter it. Formula One seeks to maximise its profits by commodificating itself. Elite stars are promoted as celebrities. For example, an attempt to present Jenson Button as a star has taken place in Britain, while in the case of Germany, Lincoln Allison and Terry Monnington comment: (Lotthar Matthaus), Michael Schumacher, (and Bernhard Langer) have been more importantly formative of young peoples images of Germany in the last generation that have Fichte, Hegel and Bismark, (L. Allison and T.   Monningtonin, 2005).   The American model seems to suit Formula One best again when questions about its relation to national identity arise. What Foster observes as a characteristic of the American model, is that there is little sense of national identity (). The leagues identification of its supporters is one of commercial customers rather than fans. The business can and will be moved whenever commercial considerations dictate, more like a supermarket chain than a sports team, (Foster, in Allison p. 75). This is partly true for Formula One and relevant to de-territorilisation. Most teams can relocate, as mentioned, and race venues can be changed, as was the case in recent years, with traditional European races (like the Austrian GP) being dropped from the calendar in favour of new venues in Asia (Bahrain, Malaysia, Turkey, China). However, when the sport was conceived, (prior to advertising) the racing cars would be usually painted in their national colours (green for Britain, blue for France, silver for Germany, Red for Italy etc). Today only Ferrari maintains some sense of national identity, being the only team remaining of those who took part in the inaugural 1950 World Championship; and they are still carrying the traditional racing colours (Rosso Corse). It is the only team that has fans (usually fans support drivers, not teams), the tifosi, and the race tracks of Imola and Monza are considered their home. In a lesser extent, that could apply to British teams and the Silverstone circuit. Few customs that refer to the presence of nationalism in past years still remain. One such example is the playing of the national anthem for both winning driver and constructor during the award-giving ceremony. At the same time, the hoisting of the flags in honour of the first, second and third drivers takes place. Another is the existence of a small flag next to the name of the driver, to indicate his or her nationality, on their racing overalls and on the sides of the cars cockpit.   Finally, there are no national teams competitions in Formula One, (In 2006, a rival series to F1, A1GP appeared), and, as mentioned before, the FIA is the only regulating sporting body.   Televisualisation However, we have seen that in practice, because of the aforementioned intervention of the European Commission in the governing of Formula One, many key decisions about the sport are taken by the person who administrates its commercial rights and not the governing body.   This person could be considered the equivalent of a commissioner in a commercial model. In the case of Formula One, he is Bernie Ecclestone, through his FOM company. FOA/FOM, companies controlled by () Ecclestone, are engaged in the promotion of the FIA Formula One Championship. The 1998 Concorde Agreement provides that FOA is the Commercial Rights Holder to the FIA Formula One Championship. FOA is thus responsible for televising and generally commercializing the Championship. On 28 May 1999, FOA changed its name to Formula One Management Limited (FOM) which manages the rights. The commercial rights themselves were taken over by an associated company, now also named FOA, (http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2001/c_169/c_16920010613en00050011.pdf). Miller underlines the importance of televisualisation in sport: Television was the prime motor in the development of post-war sport() helping to constitute a sports/media complex or media-sports-culture complex of sports organisation, media/marketing organisations, and media personnel (broadcasters and journalists). Dependency of sports organi

Immunization and Violence :: Philosophy Kant

Immunization and Violence 1. In a text dedicated to Kant as interpreter of the Enlightenment, Michel Foucault locates the task of contemporary philosophy in a precise stance. It concerns that taut and acute relation with the present that he names the "ontology of the actual." How are we to understand the phrase? What does it mean to situate philosophy in the point or on the line in which the actual is revealed in the density of its own historical being? What does an ontology of the actual mean, properly speaking? The expression alludes above all to a change in perspective with regard to ourselves. To be in relation ontologically with the actual means to think modernity no longer as an epoch between others, but as a stance, a posture, a will to see one's own present as a task. There is in this choice, something -- let's call it a tension, an impulse -- that Foucault will call an à ©thos, which moves even beyond the Hegelian definition of philosophy as the proper time spent in thought, because it makes of thou ght the lever that lifts the present out of a linear continuity with time, keeping it suspended between deciding what we are and what we can become. Already in the case of Kant his support of the Enlightenment didn't signify only remaining faithful to certain ideas, affirming the autonomy of man, but above all in activating a permanent critique of the present, not abandoning it in favor of an unattainable utopia, but inverting the notion of the possible that is contained within it, making it the key for a different reading of reality. This is the task of philosophy as the ontology of the actual: while on the level of analysis, locating the difference between that which is essential and that which is contingent, between superficial effects and profound dynamics that move things, that transform lives and that mark existences. We are concerned here with the moment, the critical threshold, from which today's news [cronaca] takes on the breadth of history. That which is placed in being is an underlying question of the meaning of what we call "today." What does today mean generally? What characterizes it essentially, which is to say, what characterizes its effectivity, its contradictions, its potentialities? But this question doesn't exhaust the task of the ontology of the actual. It isn't anything other than the condition for asking another question, this time that has the form of a choice and a decision.

congressional reconstruction- civil war :: essays research papers

The governments established under Congressional Reconstruction made notable and lasting achievements. One positive outcome that resulted was the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which extended citizenship to African Americans and listed certain rights of all citizens such as the right to own property, bring lawsuits, and testify in court. Another major outcome was the Fifteenth Amendment, which prohibited the states from denying the right to vote because of a person’s race or because a person had been a slave. This finally granted African Americans the right to vote and marked an important change in the history of our country. A negative outcome resulted politically from congressional Reconstruction. Many of the federal laws concerning reconstruction led to the strengthening of the federal government at the expense of the states. These new laws often placed significant restrictions on state actions on the ground that the rights of national citizenship took precedence over the powers of state governments leading to an increase in sectional bitterness, an intensification of the racial issue, and the development of one-party politics in the South. Stemming from this â€Å"infringement† of states’ rights and intensified by the election of 1868 was another negative outcome. Fierce activities were stirred up by groups such as the KKK- violence became prominent, and terrorists and mobs attacked many people- mostly Republicans and blacks. The end of slavery brought new expectations for all African Americans, whether they had been slaves or not. Taking advantage of the new choices that freedom opened, they tried to create independent lives for themselves, and they developed social institutions that helped to define black communities. African Americans also expected political and economic equality. Few were able to acquire land of their own- a significant constraint on their economic choices- and most became either wage laborers or sharecroppers. Having no land, no tools, and no money, the freed slaves had only their personal labor to sell.

Surgery :: essays research papers

Surgery   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My stomach and throat seemed to be playing ping pong with my heart as I entered the hospital’s waiting room. All week I had been playing it cool telling everyone that the surgery was not that big of a deal, and that I was enthused about all the attention I would be receiving. But today reality had hit me. I had never been through anything like this before.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The waiting room was sparsely filled with families waiting for their loved ones. I tried to look at the various magazines, but nothing helped relieve the tight feeling in my stomach. Finally after what seemed like an eternity the nurse called my name. I slowly got up, and headed through the door with my family. I was thankful that they were there. Their presence made me feel more at ease.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I was asked to change into the attractive dress without a back, and then I was handed some funny looking socks. I looked like an eighty year old lady in a fifteen year-old’s body with my new outfit. Another nurse entered the room to take my vitals, and give me an IV, the needle that she pulled out of the plastic looked huge. I had had shots before, but an IV was a completely different deal. After the IV was secured, I was afraid to move my arm, in case the IV fell out, because I was not having the nurse stick me again. With my vitals recorded, and my first shot administered to relax me, I was feeling slightly better about the procedure. Just when I was convincing myself that this would not be so bad, a nurse with a sour disposition came to wheel me away. Then it hit me, my family could not follow me to this next part, I was on my own. I had hardly noticed their presence for the last half hour, but now I was suddenly aware of their pending absence. As they w heeled me down the hall away from my mom, dad and sister, I had the urge to jump out of the Gurney, and race back to them.