Physiology of Manic Depression

Physiology of Manic Depression Bre Wilson Manic Depression, or more commonly known as Bipolar disorder, is a disorder that causes the patient affected to cycle through periods of depression and mania (NIMH n.d.). There are three general types of Bipolar Disorder and then a fourth category for those who do not fall within any of the previous categories. Bipolar I Disorder is defined by manic episodes that last at least 7 days and then a depressive episode lasting at least two weeks. Symptoms may be severe enough to seek immediate medical care. Bipolar II Disorder is defined by recurring depressive, and hypomanic episodes, but not to the extent of Bipolar I. Cyclothymic Disorder is defined by numerous periods of hypomania and depression that lasts longer than two years in adults, (for one year for children), but the symptoms exhibited do not fit the within the categories of a simple hypomanic episode or a simple depressive episode. The final category is Other Specified and Unspecified Bipolar and Related Disorders which is def ined as bipolar tendencies, and symptoms, that do not meet the requirements within the previous three categories (NIMH n.d.). The true cause of Bipolar Disorder is unknown but scientists believe that it could be due to many environmental and genetic factors, as well as chemical imbalances within the brain- such as: GABA, serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine (Bressert 2016). Some people experience rapid cycling of episodes while others experience a prolonged period of time between cycles of episodes. The exact cause behind the rapid cycling is unclear but researchers believe that its due to the consistent misfiring of receptors causing mayhem within the Central Nervous System. These neurotransmitters play a huge role in a persons circadian rhythm, their emotional expression and regulation, their behavior and how well they respond to stress. After years of study, Manic Depression is now thought to be a result of serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine imbalance, as well as a GABA defect within the hippocampus (Frey 2007). GABA, a relative of Glutamate, is a primary inhibitory neurotransmitter which means that it mediates other neurotransmitters to prevent over exertion. Glutamate is the most abundant neurotransmitter present within the Central Nervous System. Its hypothesized that erratic misfiring of the Glutamate receptors within the brain could possibly be the cause of GABA fluctuations (Frey 2007). This causes the neurotransmitters that GABA mediates, (norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin), to fluctuate unpredictably as well causing the mood swings, sleeplessness, depression and self-destructive behavior expressed by patients diagnosed with Manic Depression. Dopamine, which acts on the D receptors in the brain, is the neurotransmitter that regulates a persons feelings of pleasure and emotional reward. Norepinephrine , which acts on alpha and beta adrenergic receptors, is the terminal neurotransmitter of the Sympathetic Nervous System. Norepinephrine is the fight or flight molecule. Serotonin, which acts on the 5-HT receptors within the brain, is the neurotransmitter that fosters feelings of happiness and well-being. Modifying the effectiveness, or quantity, of these three neurotransmitters is what leads mania, hypomania, and depression exhibited in patients with Manic Depression. People who are experiencing a manic episode often engage in risky behaviors, (binge drinking or promiscuity), exhibit restlessness, and experience disruptions in their sleep patterns. Manic episodes can be triggered chemically within the brain, or they can be triggered by external factors such as: excessive stress, a change in diet or exercise, excessive caffeine intake, antidepressant medication, and certain other medications as well (Bressert 2016). Dopamine plays a role in the behaviors exhibited by patients in manic episodes. Dopamine acts on the D receptors within the brain and cause a person to be emotionally satisfied. When the receptors cannot receive dopamine due to a blockage, or antagonist, emotional satisfaction is dramatically lowered- causing patients to engage is risky behavior to try to fulfill their emotional needs. Rapid firing of norepinephrine receptors cause unpredictable, behavior due to the influence on the sympathetic nervous system. Some studies suggest that mania is due to certain circadian cues and insist that treatment for manic depression be scheduled around a persons circadian rhythm (Roybal et al 2007). Serotonin plays a role in mania because patients have decreased binding affinity at 5-HT receptors during a manic episode (Yatham 2010). Serotonin and norepinephrine play a major role in mania but has also been linked to the depressive episodes as well. Depressive episodes almost always follow manic episodes which is most likely the result of neurotransmitter reuptake and are the result of neurotransmitter imbalance within the brain. Many times, manic depression is often misdiagnosed as depression since depressive episodes are easier to diagnose than manic episodes, and therefore an antidepressant is prescribed. However, when a patient takes an antidepressant, such as a serotonin reuptake inhibitor, it doesnt allow the active reuptake of serotonin which often leads to a manic episode because of the reduced binding (Yatham 2010). In contrast with manic episodes, brain serotonin 5-HT receptor binding is increased during bipolar depressive episodes. Treating manic depression is often very complex and combines a process of finding just the right regime of medication, as well as psychotherapy. Although manic depression is a life-long illness that cannot be totally eradicated, many patients can lead a semi-normal, productive life if properly medicated. Typical treatments for bipolar disorder include: psychotherapy, mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, and some Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (NIMH n.d.). In some cases, doctors will prescribe a medication to combat the depression, a medication to combat the mania, and then medication to combat any side effects caused by the other medications. Patients who exhibit a higher rate of serotonin 5-HT binding prior to starting medication had a higher chance of recurring episodes, even while taking medication, than did those who had a lower rate of serotonin 5-HT binding prior to medication (Parsey 2013). Lithium was a drug that works within the nervous system to strengthen the neural connections between cells to increase cell signaling therefore limiting the frequency and intensity of manic-depressive episodes. Lithium was ant icipated to have success rates as high as 70%-80% but studies now indicate that Lithium really has a success rate of approximately 40% and comes with a plethora of side effects (Surgeon General Report for Mental Health). Modafinil is an alpha-adrenergic agonist and directly stimulated the receptors within the brain (modafinil.com n.d.). The reuptake of noradrenaline by the noradrenergic is decreased and increase excitatory glutamatergic transmission is increased. This decreases GABAergic transmission, resulting in the elimination of GABA receptor signaling which could combat symptoms of bipolar depression by limiting the abundance of GABA receptor misfiring (modafinil.com n.d.). Studies show a significant improvement in depressive symptoms in the patients who received the experimental drug (Modafinil) by the second week with maintained improvement throughout the remainder of the experiment (Frye 2007). The drug did not seem to affect mania however, because during the experimental pe riod, there was no significant difference between the emergence of mania or in hospitalizations due to mania (one per group) (Frye 2007). Works Cited Bressert, S. (2016). Causes of Bipolar Disorder. Psych Central.   Ã‚   Frey B. N., Andreazza A. C., Nery F. G., Martins M. R., Quevedo J., Soares J. C., Kapczinski F. (2007). The role of hippocampus in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. Behavioral Pharmacology, 18(5-6):419-30 Frye, M. A., Grunze, H., Suppes, T., Mcelroy, S. L., Keck, P. E., Walden, J., . . . Post, R. M. (2007). A Placebo-Controlled Evaluation of Adjunctive Modafinil in the Treatment of Bipolar Depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(8), 1242-1249. Modafinil (Provigil). (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2017, from https://www.modafinil.com/ National Institute of Mental Health. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2017, from https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/bipolar-disorder/index.shtml#part_145402 Parsey RV, Olvet DM, Oquendo MA, Huang YY, Ogden RT, Mann JJ. (2013). Higher 5-HT(1A) Receptor Binding Potential During a Major Depressive Episode Predicts Poor Treatment Response: Preliminary Data from a Naturalistic Study. Neuropsychopharmacology. Roybal, K., Theobold D., Graham A., DiNieri, J. A., Russo, S. J., Krishnan, V., Chakravarty, S., Peevey, J., Oehrlein N., Birnbaum S., Vitaterna, M. H., Orsulak, P., Takahashi J. S., Nestler, E. J., Carlezon Jr., W.A., and McClung C. A. (2007). Mania-like behavior induced by disruption of CLOCK. PNAS. Surgeon General Report for Mental Health. (n.d.). Accessed March 28, 2017.  Ã‚   Yatham, L. N., Liddle, P F., Erez, J., Kauer-SantAnna, M., Lam, R. W., Imperial M., Sossi, V., and Ruth, T. J. (2010). Brain serotonin-2 receptors in acute mania. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 47-51

Birth Order

This paper ought to review and study the possible connection between child order and personality, with respect to the theory as proposed by Alfred Adler. The paper would take a look at what the theory is all about and whether there are enough evidence that could support Adler’s claim.Alfred Adler has been one of the pioneers of psychoanalysis, although he ventured away from some of Sigmund Freud’s theories.   It was due to their difference in ideas and contextual analysis that the separation from the Psychoanalytic school happened.   Adler created his own school of psychology which he called â€Å"Individual Psychology†. In this group, the concern focused on the so-called inferiority complex that humans possess (Ansbacher, 1964).With respect to Adler’s theory, humans are originally weak and helpless. Humans are born without knowledge and must always be guided by those who are â€Å"superior† or by someone who is older (Ansbacher, 1964).Because o f this, children strive to learn further and try in every way to exceed or at least achieve the same level as those people whom they perceive to be superior to them. This is what Adler speculated as the â€Å"inferiority complex†, the driving force that fuels a human’s emotions, actions and reasons (Mosak, 1999).According to Adler those people who strive to become the best or those who try in every way to succeed are people who have very high inferiority complex, while those who are easy-going are more likely less affected by the inferiority complex (Mosak, 1999).However, a very strong inferiority complex might also have a negative effect on a particular person, most specifically when the person has failed in most of his/her endeavors. These experiences might leave the person feeling wrecked, hopeless and unmotivated to strive towards future goals because of the overwhelming failure that the person has encountered.Adler supported Freud’s hypothesis concerning th e effects of parenting styles on the life of the person. Adler hypothesized that there are two parenting styles, pampering and neglect, which affect the life of adult person.Pampering would be the process in which the parent gives too much attention to the child and protects the child, so that the child is presented with an ideal world.   This does not help the child develop into a full social individual. Due to this kind of treatment, the child might develop a severe inferiority complex and might be shocked when faced with the realities of life on their own. (Drescher & Stone, 2004)  The child might not be able to perform well on his/her own because he/she was used to the experience of having his/her parents on his/her side whenever problems arose. Also the child would be doubtful not only of his/her abilities but also of the decisions that he/she makes.With regards to the neglectful parenting style, the child is said to be exposed to all the extremes and problems that the worl d can offer.   Since the child was left alone, he/she might be force to struggle on his/her own which leads to his/her mistrust to the people around him/her.   Because of this, the child reared under a neglectful parenting style finds it very hard to create or build relationships with other people especially with his/her peers. (MacDonald, 1971)Therefore, Alfred Adler believed that parents shall make sure that the child was protected from the evils of the world at the same time the parents are obligated to present to the child the harsh realities of life. (Stein, 2007) Simply put, the child must be protected but that does not mean that the parent would deny them the knowledge and opportunity of knowing how to solve problems independently.Aside from parenting, another aspect that greatly affects a child’s performance in his lifetime according to Adler is his/her birth order. Indeed, this assumption has since garnered criticism and support from psychologists and social scie ntists.According to this â€Å"theory†, the birth order of the child determines how he views himself as a person with respect to how the child is treated in his family. It is also the factor which is responsible for the behavior and personality of the person in his adult life. (Stein, 2007)The Firstborn:According to Adler’s theory, the firstborn of the family is treated with outmost care and spoiled before the other siblings arrived. The situation for this child starts out with excited parents and the child usually has everything he/she needs. When the younger sibling is conceived there is a sudden shift of attention of the parents. The new baby now receives more attention that the firstborn child. Thus the firstborn, in Adler’s theory, tries his/her best to regain this attention. The child desperately seeks the return of his/her parents’ full love and interest. (Stein, 2007)Most firstborns feel dethroned by their younger siblings because they now have to share everything with the next child; thus, a firstborn learns to share. Also, the firstborn are given more responsibility than the other children, since they are the eldest; this could cause them to develop an authoritarian persona. (Mosak, 1999)  The parents’ expectations for the firstborn are usually very high; they are pushed into the situation of being responsible and setting an example for their younger siblings. These experiences might led the first born child to develop the qualities of a good leader, although usually firstborn children have lower self confidence than other children. (Stein, 2007)The Middleborn:Middle children do not encounter the same expectations and are not spoiled as the firstborn; however, they still get a portion of the attention that the firstborn child enjoys. What makes being the middle child interesting is that they not only experience a drive to be superior to the first child, but also must compete for attention and status among the youn ger siblings. These experiences could cause inferiority with reference to their older siblings but superiority with reference to their younger siblings. (Stein, 2007)

Social Science

SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORY ESSAY Most of the things we know about human? s behaviour has come out because of the different psychological theories. We may question why there are so many different psychological perspectives, which one is right and which one is wrong. Most Psychologists nowadays would say that none of the theories are correct. However, in the early days, the Psychologists would agree that all the theories were the only truly scientific one. Psychology is a science dedicated to the study of our mind and behaviour. There are different ways of understanding the human mind and behaviour, those ways are called perspectives.A perspective is basically a point of view or a way of considering how some things are linked together and their importance. Sigmund Freud known as the father of psychoanalysis was a famous physiologist, medical doctor and an influential thinker of the early twenties. Freud was the one who created a new method to understand the human personality. He had one of the most provocative minds of the last century. Freud was the one that improved the theory of psychodynamic psychology and the famous treatment known as psychoanalysis.Freud was one of the most brilliant thinkers in the last century, he brought public attention by his ideas of we usually are not conscious of the aspects of ourselves. He believed that what people are conscious of is symbolized in our minds, memories and feelings. Freud believed that the things we experienced in the past are part of our mind that he called the unconscious. However, we are not able to access the contents in our unconscious, they often appear in our dreams. Freud described the unconscious mind has an iceberg where only a very small part of it is accessible to awareness.The part of the unconscious that he believed it can be accessed very easily he named the pre-conscious. The importance of an early experience is evidently illustrated by Freud’s development theory of psychosexual development. He de scribed that each stage of our life concentrates on a part of the body that is relevant at that stage. If the needs of the individual are achieved on that stage, the he or she was ready to go into the next stage. However, if the individual struggles to achieve that stage then he or she becomes stuck in this stage.Freud believed that these results are the ones that we carry through into the adulthood and it can possibly explain our behaviours later in life. Stretch and Whitehouse (2010) The early stage of an individual is called the oral stage. The focus on this stage is on the mouth and activities like, sucking, licking and biting. Freud believes that there could be two reasons for fixation. If the infant was discouraged two early, It could make the infant feels unsatisfied and the infant could become a negative, sarcastic person.If, in the other hand, the infant was over-gratified, the infant could develop a gullible personality, easily trusting in others and with a tendency of swa llow anything. The early stage lasts from birth to approximately 18 months. Stretch and Whitehouse (2010) If the infant gets through the stage with no problems, the next stage is called the anal stage, where the infant focuses on aspects to do with potty training. If there is a fight between the parents and the child during the potty training or if the child does not feel comfortable while potty training, they may rebel by retaining their faeces.This type of fixation is called anally retentive. The child is not given the opportunity to enjoy potty training so the child can become a very disorganised person. During the ages of four and five, the child passes through the phallic stage. Freud believed that this stage is associated with nervousness and guilt feelings about sex and fear of castration for males. If this stage is not passes successfully, this theory suggests that a boy could become homosexual and a girl could become a lesbian. Freud thought these were abnormal fixations bu t nowadays most people would not view them in the way Freud did.When the child reaches the age of five until the age of seven, the child gets into the latency stage where he or she focuses on the social environment and the development of friendships. The final psychosexual stage is the genital stage in which the puberty begins. Freud believed that the less fixated the individual has become during the earlier stages, the more easily this stage will be negotiated, resulting in the ability to form strongest heterosexual relationships with an ability to be warm and loving as well as to receive love in a new, mature fashion.Overall, Psychoanalysis is usually used to cure depression and any type of mental illness. Psychologists also believed that their therapy would release repressed emotions, it would make the unconscious conscious. Functionalism is known as a sociological aspect that sees the society working in peace and harmony with each other, making an enormous contribution to the sm ooth running of the society. The society works together using social methods to control and deal with deviant members of groups, to make sure the society functions smoothly.Talcott Parsons was an American sociologist who helped in the development of functionalism and sociological aspects. He believed that society was a system made of interrelated institutions and for that reason, the society would run smooth. He also believed that the main role of an institution was to socialise individuals and make sure they were able to understand the values of the society and behave in an acceptable way. Functionalism says that everything and everyone in the society serves a purpose, no matter how strange it may seem. For example, crime is viewed universally as trouble.Functionalists, however says that crime serves several purposes. They believed that crime is needed for the employment of criminal investigators, police officers and other people related fields to work. If at any moment crime disap pear from the planet, thousands of jobs related with crime would no longer be necessary. Stretch and Whitehouse (2010) Functionalism received some criticism for forgetting the negative aspects in events such as divorce. Critics also declare that the perspective of functionalism justifies the statues of quo and complacency on the part of society members.Functionalism does not persuade people to try to change their social environment, even if those changes could benefit them. Functionalism is also criticised for its lack of testability. Functionalism is described as the most generalized and unproductive of the sociological schools. It is not logically sync with variability between cultures and it does not explain the changes in the society. Marxism was first developed by a German Philosopher called Karl Marx. He considered that individual behaviour was shaped by society but he believed that the economic system defined society and people? place within it. Marx held the views that the i ndustrial society of his time there were two social classes: The bourgeoisie or capitalist that were described as a small powerful group who owned all the factors, offices and the other places of employment and the Proletariat that were a much larger and poorer group that were employed by the capitalists. Stretch and Whitehouse (2010) Marx’s view was that those two social groups would always get into conflict as the capitalists were the ones that owned the offices and they would want higher profits.In the other side the employees, the ones on the proletariat group, would ask for higher salaries. That is the reason that Marxism is usually called the conflict model. Marx believed that those conflicts between the capitalists and the proletariat could cause a revolution. Feminism is often seen as an example of a conflict model. Abbot and Claire Wallace (1990) were two women who argued about the male domination in the society. They said the society did not pay enough attention to the issues of the women and their place in the society.There are three different types of feminism: Marxism feminism, Radical feminism and Liberal feminism Marxism Feminists see women as a working-class. They believed that women meet the social, emotional and physical needs of their children and they are ready to work for their family and children on the future. Women know how to maintain their husbands or partners, they are good at cooking meals and they take care of their children properly without being paid. Stretch and Whitehouse (2010) Radical feminism believes that it is not the capitalism or social life that dominates women, but men.They say that women are housewives and mothers. They believe there is not equality between the sexes and women are only needed to take care of the children and do house work Liberal Feminism agree that the changes happening now and the one that will probably happen in the future such as the changes of attitudes, equal pay and sex discrimination br ought more equality between the two sexes. Marxism claims that the health problems people have are closely related to the unhealthy and stressful work environments.Marx believed that health problems are not the result of individual weakness, but the unequal social structure and class disadvantages that are reproduced under capitalism. Marx believed that the patterns of mortality and illness are probably related to occupation, especially in the case of industrial working class. Marxism argues that medicine is not an independent discipline, but a sector of economic production which respond to the political needs of the capitalist system as a whole. Some Marxists argue that the NHS benefits the bourgeoisie by ensuring that their workers remain well enough to work.Most of those workers understood their inequality but believed that the system was fair. Marxism discussed that the free health service was a victory for the proletariat, the working class, as the bourgeoisie used to get the b est care first. Marxism received some critics for not paying attention to the dynamics of the medical process, the experience of illness and the state of being a patient. Turner (1987) believed that the Marxist political economy of health needed to address how the diversity of capitalist societies was related to medicine, health and illness.The knowledge of the medical practitioners plays a very important role in providing health care. However, the primary purpose is to regulate the working classes and the popular masses. Navarro (1986) Emile Durkheim was a French sociologist who focused on different types of suicides. Durkheim believed that there is not any society in which suicide does not exist. Durkheim’s theory of suicide adds a lot for the understanding of the phenomenon. However, he has laid too much stress on one factor which is suicide. He has undermined other factors.Durkheim believed that suicide is not something individual or private, it happens because of somethi ng powerful that stays over and above the individual. Durkheim viewed that: â€Å"all classes of deaths resulting directly or indirectly from the positive or negative acts of the victim itself who knows the result they produce†. Nowadays loads of doctors and psychologists believe that the majority of people who commit suicide are in a pathological state. However Durkheim believed that people take their own life because of social reasons.Emile Durkheim categorized different types of suicides basing on the different relationships between the individual and the society. Egoistic Suicide is when an individual isolate himself from the society. The individual usually feels that there is no place for him or her in the society. In many cases the individual has lack of altruistic feelings. Altruistic suicide happens to people who are too close and intimidate to the society group. This type of suicide often results from the over incorporation of the individual into social proof.Accordi ng to Durkheim Anomic suicide happens when there is a breakdown of social equilibrium. For example if someone is really rich and goes bankrupt. Fatalistic suicide happens when there is an overregulation in the society. For example if a slave commits suicide, it is called a fatalistic suicide. Conclusion To conclude my essay is clear that Marx, Freud and Durkheim had a big impact in our society. I believe that without their theories our society would not be the way it is now. References â€Å"Health and social care level 3, M. Stretch and M. Whitehouse, First published 2010†

The Simple Present Tense of Verbs

In English grammar, the simple present tense is a form of the verb that refers to an action or event that is ongoing or that regularly takes place in present time. For example, in the sentence he cries easily, the verb cries is an ongoing action that he easily does.   Except in the case of the word be, the simple present is represented in English by either the base form  of the verb like in I sing or the base form plus the third-person singular -s  inflection  as in She sings. A verb in the simple present tense can appear alone as the main verb in a sentence; this finite  verb form is called simple because it doesnt involve aspect. In English grammar, there are seven accepted functions of the usage of the simple present for of verbs: to express permanent states, general truths, habitual actions, live commentary, performative actions, past time or historic present, and future time. Basic Meaningof the Simple Present There are a variety of uses for the simple present in verb conjugation, but mostly it serves to keep the sentence structure itself grounded in the events happening presently, or as they relate to the here and now. Michael Pearces The Rutledge Dictionary of English Language Studies expertly lays out the seven commonly accepted functions of the simple present form of verbs: 1) Permanent state:  Jupiter  is  a very massive planet.2) General truth:  The earth  is  round.3) Habitual action:  Her daughter  works  in Rome.4) Live commentary:  In each case I  add  the two numbers: three plus three  gives  six . . ..5) Performative:  I  pronounce  you man and wife.6) Past time (see historic present):  He  moves  to the window alongside, and  sees  her inside the office moving away from the door. He  shoots  twice through the window and  kills  her.7) Future time:  My flight  leaves  at four thirty this afternoon. In each of these cases, the simple present serves to keep the verb form in the here and now, even when referring to past or future actions, the sentence is grounded in the present by these verbs, but there are more ways than one to express the present. Simple Present Versus Present Progressive As far as English grammar goes, the simple present does not fully function in describing ongoing events and instead the present progressive form of a verb must be used, although the simple present may be accepted colloquially to entail an ongoing action. Laura A. Michaelis describes this relationship through the example of the verb falls in Aspectual Grammar and Past Time Reference, wherein she says present-tense event predications, if intended as reports upon circumstances ongoing at present, must appear in the present progressive. In the instance of he falls, then, the verb may be interpreted as habitual, but it would be better to use he is falling instead. Using the present progressive, therefore, is more correct than using the simple progressive when stating something as ongoing rather than habitual.