Supply chain management in the uk construction Industry Essay

Supply chain management in the uk construction Industry - Essay Example According to the Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals (CSCMP), â€Å"supply chain management encompasses the planning and management of all activities involved in sourcing and procurement, conversion and all logistics management activities† (Council of Supply Chain Management Professionals, n.d.). In addition to these, SCM also includes collaboration and coordination with channel partners which includes suppliers, customers as well as intermediaries. The council also says that the supply chain management also plays a crucial role in integrating demand and supply management across and within the companies. According to James B. Ayers, supply chain management is all about â€Å"designing, maintenance and operation of supply chain process, including those that make up extended product features, for satisfaction of end-user needs† (Ayers, 2000). Over the past few decades various techniques regarding supply chain management (SCM) have been used successfully in different industries like manufacturing and food. In these industries, the supply process encompasses all those activities that are associated with the processing – from raw materials to the finishing of the final product. The entire process involves procurement, production scheduling, inventory management, order processing, storage, customer service, transport and all the supporting information systems. Roy Morledge, Mohieddin Grada and Andrew Knight opined that in manufacturing industry, supply chain management strategies are adopted assuming that it is â€Å"an ongoing process where supplier and customer experience involves frequent transactions for the same or similar products† (Pryke, 2009). SCM strategies are considered as the key in maintaining quality and making the innovation process easier. Each of the aspects through which SCM is integrated wit h the manufacturing and food industry can be discussed in the

Qualifications of arbitrator 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Qualifications of arbitrator 2 - Essay Example The SAL 2012 does not define this, but the set of its Implementing Regulations, which has not yet been issued, is expected to clarify this issue. Meanwhile, one could turn to its older version, the Implementing Regulations of the previous Saudi Arbitration Law, which included the same requirement.3 The regulations states that a person can be considered of good conduct if he has not been "sentenced to Had or Ta'zir4, to penalty for a crime of dishonor, or being dismissed from a public position following a disciplinary order."5 Taking from this conception as well as the body of previous court proceedings and judgments, it is clear that the requirement of good conduct is close to the requirement of Adalah in Sharia but it is not regarded as equal to it.6 This is because committing minor sins and persisting on them which are considered as acts contrary to Adalah according to Sharia do not always constitute an offense or offenses in the eyes of the law. Most of these do not call for the i ssuance of a judicial decision with Ta'zir or dismissal from public position at the present time in Saudi Arabia. 7 Therefore, what contradicts Adalah according to the perspective of Sharia does not necessarily contradict the good conduct in the Kingdom. One could also examine the motivations of the legislators. By refraining from mentioning Adalah in the law, the Saudi legislature is explicit in its intent. If Adalah was meant to be the same as the requirements for good conduct and reputation according to Sharia, then the framers would clearly mention it like what they have done in the Judicial Law concerning the requirement of eligibility. In that law, it was clearly stated that he who is appointed as a judge â€Å"shall have full judicial competence according to Sharia provisions†.8 In practice, the good conduct is a presumed quality in the arbitrator unless contrary is proven by who claims otherwise.9 Should the contrary be proven, it is supposed that the appointment of t he arbitrator is to be nullified in line with the Saudi Arbitration Law, which in turn exposes the arbitral award to challenge. There arises a question here concerning international arbitration and whether it is required for the arbitrator to be of good conduct and reputation within the criterion of the Saudi Law. This issue is addressed by adhering to the criteria of good conduct by the law, that which governs the arbitrator, as agreed upon by both parties in dispute. If the arbitrator is a Saudi national then the criteria of the Saudi Law is to be applied, if the arbitrator is from another state then that state’s criteria of good conduct is to be applied. This is due to the aim of the Saudi legislature from this requirement which is to issue a fair and correct award. Therefore, it is supposed to apply the law of the state of the arbitrator since it would be less contentious, more impartial and more appropriate barometer in determining the good conduct of its citizens. 1.1 L egal Capacity (Age of Puberty and Mental Ability) Sharia scholars agree that a judge or arbitrator should at least reach puberty and should be mentally able as well.10 They is based on the principle that the legal actions of immature and mentally ill persons - without the permission of their guardian - are not approved, and thus

Causes of Human Trafficking

Causes of Human Trafficking An examination of the issues and challenges of trafficking bring us face to face with the stark reality of the situation. Hordes of women and children are victims of grave human rights violation having been trafficked by vested interests using lure, deceit, compulsion, threat and coercion before being pushed into the gory world of CSE or other forms of bondage. They are subjected to physical and mental trauma, economic deprivation and violations of their dignity. The post trafficking scenario finds the victim at the end of the tunnel with almost no hope of survival. Vulnerability situations and gender discrimination have been facilitating and perpetuating trafficking. A few alarming trends that have emerged in recent years are sexual exploitation through sex tourism, paedophilia, prostitution in pilgrim towns and other tourist destinations and cross-border trafficking. Trafficking of women and children is definitely not a localised issue. There may be a few instances of trafficking within the community but it is largely a borderless crime transgressing the boundaries of police stations, districts, states, countries and regions. Over the years various countries in the South Asian region have emerged as sources, destinations and/or transit points. More so India has emerged as a source, destination and transit for trafficking for varied purposes such as for commercial sexual exploitation and labour. While intra-country trafficking forms the bulk of the trafficked victims, cross-border trafficking also takes place, especially from Nepal and Bangladesh. Women and children are also trafficked to the Middle Eastern countries and other parts of the world for purposes of cheap labour and commercial sexual exploitation. Trafficking though not reported from many places happens everywhere. The situation is worse in underdeveloped regions. Here come into play the push and pull factors of trafficking and its interplay with the forces of demand and supply. For instance trafficking of women and children from the North-Eastern states of India and bordering countries, in both directions, is a serious issue. The long drawn extremist activities as well as the ethnic clashes and conflicts between several groups in this region have made women and children in the entire region highly vulnerable. Lack of infrastructural development and livelihood options have exacerbated the situation  [1]  . Since trafficking in this area cuts across different states and countries, it needs to be studied in detail and dealt with appropriately by the agencies of the Government of India, along with the state governments and appropriate NGOs working in this field. While the pull factors appear to be the dominant cause of trafficking, the push factors not only contribute to but exacerbate the situation. It is the economically backward and socially discriminated and deprived sections of society, who are the most vulnerable. Even among them the girl child is the worst hit as she is regarded as a liability. The gender discrimination prevalent in the social milieu and different forms of violence against women like infanticide, female foeticide adds to the vulnerability. This is further accentuated during periods of acute economic distress like drought, flood, food shortage, etc. The debt crisis due to economic deprivation as well as the collapse of social security systems has spurred migration, which has also eventually contributed to trafficking. That trafficking is a low-risk and high-profit venture is not doubted. A well established trafficker with many links may easily have an extremely profitable and safe business of trading in women and children, with an income running into several lakhs a year  [2]  . In comparison the earnings of the trafficked persons are a pittance. There appears to be no instance where illegal wealth amassed by the trafficker has been forfeited. Action on this front by all the governments is essential as a deterrent also since it is a source of black money in the economy. While exploring the links between migration and trafficking, it emerged that restrictions on womens migration, coupled with lack of protective measures increases their vulnerability to trafficking. Therefore, migration has to be understood and addressed from a developmental perspective; if trafficking is to be prevented. There is a strong linkage between migration with gender, development and good governance. A holistic approach, addressing all these dimensions, is called for. Safe migration, prevention of trafficking and containment of HIV/AIDS are central to the development the south Asian region. These are parameters having a direct bearing on public safety and, therefore, on national security. Anti trafficking strategies need to recognise peoples rights to move with informed choice. With the surge in tourism in several countries of South Asia, sex tourism and related trafficking has also gone up. The governments of many developing countries with a view to encouraging tourism and consequent economic development turn a blind eye to these problems. Undoubtedly, economic development cannot be at the cost of exploitation and trafficking. On the whole there is hardly any awareness or any conscious effort to address the issues concerned. The rehabilitative scenario presents a very dismal picture. More often than not, the efforts are disjointed and ad-hoc. There are no institutionalised mechanisms in most of the countries and states of India. The counselling and vocational training imparted in the rehabilitation homes are usually dictated by the availability of facilities and resources and not by the best interests of the victims. The needs of the rescued person need to be considered in a comprehensive manner. Along with psycho-social intervention, medical care, vocational training etc also have to be taken into account. Livelihood options have to be provided to the victims. Micro-credit and such other facilities need to be extended. Once rehabilitated a follow up mechanism needs to be in place to see that there is no retrafficking. There is a need to provide them access and awareness to such facilities through help lines, help kiosks, public awareness campaigns, etc. Trafficking of women and children has to be addressed in the specific context of the push factors in the concerned community. Since the exploiters take advantage of the helplessness of poor rural families, preventive action must necessarily involve empowering the powerless, especially in rural areas. Concerted efforts by the government, in cooperation with credible NGOs and PRIs can be helpful in achieving this. Thus an integrated approach involving the three components of à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  prevention, protection and prosecutionà ¯Ã‚ £Ã‚ §Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  in effectively addressing trafficking is needed. Since trafficking is an organised crime, involving a multiplicity of actors linked together in a chain, professional methods of dealing with them are called for. Certainty and stringency of punishment of the exploiters, without any delay whatsoever, is the essential requirement for preventing trafficking. Simultaneously, the victims need to be rescued and rehabilitated in a sustainable manner. As lack of priority, time and sensitivity as well as ignorance of the issues concerned are commonly seen as the factors responsible for the present day dismal picture in enforcement, an effective networking of the law enforcement agencies with NGOs can make adequate dent in the given situation. The response scenario with respect to trans-border trafficking is fraught with innumerable challenges and problems. The nationality of the trafficked person often becomes a serious issue. Another issue with respect to trans-border trafficking is that of the procedures of repatriation. In fact, many rescued victims are confined to rescue homes for more than a decade despite the fact that they had to suffer exploitation in brothels for only a few months. The post-rescue non-rehabilitative scenario is not only traumatic but also violative of human rights. The problems are aggravated because the host country usually refuses to acknowledge the nationality of the person. In many instances, the victims are unable to recollect the details of their parentage and original village, causing difficulties in verification and authentication. Appropriate governmental systems are yet to take shape and become functional. This is an area that needs immediate attention. There is limited bilateral and re gional cooperation espically in relation to law enforcement, border interdiction, victim repatriation and prevention. There is a deficiency in collection, analysis and dissemination of trafficking data and information sharing. Trans-border bilateral arrangements are immediately called for to address these issues. It is high time that the concerned government agencies took initiative in this regard. For South Asia regional criminal justice cooperation is particularly important as much of the cross border trafficking that takes place is intra regional and currently there is no formal regional police arrangement (SAARCPOL) to combat such transnational crimes. The situation in the country presents a picture of lack of cohesion and coordination. Whether it is intra-state trafficking, inter-state trafficking or trans-border trafficking, the agencies involved in rescue do not seem to have any coordination with the agencies concerned with rehabilitation. The issue of missing women and children has been seen in isolation and was never seen in correlation with trafficking. There is no common platform linking up prevention strategies between source and destination areas. The absence of a national coordinating/monitoring agency has been a serious impediment in justice delivery and protection of human rights. Therefore, in order to ensure the best interests of the victims, to bring about effective coordination at the national level and to coordinate preventive strategies, programmes and polices, there is also a need for a national nodal agency to combat trafficking. The number of non-governmental organisations working in the field has increased enormously during the last few years. However, the vast majority of them are located in urban centres and very few have grassroots connections. There is a dire need for genuine and concerned NGOs to work on anti-trafficking in the rural areas, especially in the source and transit areas. Their synergy with the PRIs, can yield good dividends. Moreover the NGOs are mostly working on rescue and post-rescue activities, including protection and prosecution. There are very few NGOs which are focussed on prevention of trafficking. This area also craves for attention by the civil society. Trafficking of women and children is the ultimate violation of human rights, but on the other hand, the response of the government and non-governmental sector is more or less ad hoc and individual-oriented, and seldom institutionalised. The extent and depth of exploitation of the trafficked victims have never been fathomed by the agencies concerned and, therefore, the response scenario has been dismal. The study also shows that post-rescue programmes lack the essence of empowerment. The welfare approach, which is commonplace, has to be replaced by a rights-based approach, where the survivors, the victims as well as prospective victims (the vulnerable ones) should be involved not only in developing strategies but also in implementing them. A participatory and holistic approach can be in the best interests of the victim, survivor and all concerned. As is seen poverty and illiteracy are the main elements constituting the substratum for trafficking. Herein operates the demand factor. This demand is fuelled by several other factors like the impunity with which the traffickers can operate, thanks to the distortions in law enforcement. The low risk enjoyed by the exploiters, coupled with the high profit in this world of crass commercialisation, ensures perpetuation of trafficking. Whereas the traffickers have no restriction on court jurisdictions or the boundaries between police stations, districts, states, and even nations in carrying out their trade, the enforcement agencies are bogged down by restrictions and limitations of all sorts, which are effectively capitalised by the traffickers. The response by the government agencies and even civil society has established that they have been able to address only the tip of the iceberg. The trends and dimensions of the problem of trafficking has exposed how it is the ultimate human right s violation and how holistic developmental issues are deeply linked to it and which needed to be addressed for successfully combating the menace.

Why the French Revolution was Just :: essays research papers

Louis exclaimed 'Why, this is a revolt.' 'No Sire,' replied the duke, 'It is a revolution.' These words were uttered by the duke and King Louis XVI when the peasants revolted into the Bastille. You may ask did the peasants have a right to do this to the king and the country of France. Yes, the peasants had a right and this is why the French Revolution was just. The 3rd estate was severely in poverty, even to the extent of on the verge of death. The poverty was so severe it can be considered fatal. The king treated the 3rd estate like crap. The 3rd estate was taxed heavily and was left hungry most of the time. Food was scarce and most of the time people were fighting even for the smallest scraps of food. The 3rd estate was forced into poverty so severely that they had no other option except to revolt and start a revolution, known as the French Revolution. A main reason why mostly peasants and people in the 3rd estate fought over food was because of the winter of 1788-1789. During this time, France experienced a heavy drought and much of the wheat and yeast used to bake bread was destroyed. This left a scarcity of the most eaten food in all of France. The price of bread soared over 600% what it used to be. A loaf of bread would be about $600 in time. This lead to an increase of crime and theft. This left many people hungry and starving. There were constant brawls and fights over scraps of bread. Louis XVI and Maria Antoinette ate all the bread they want. They did not give a darn about any of the people starving and begging for any kind of food outside their luxurious castle. They just sat there wasting money and eating all they want. This lead the 3rd estate down a road they had been before. The ?slaves? of the king and the tax payers. Taxes were so severe that the 3rd estate could hardly keep up. The king charged the 3rd estate with tax after tax. He taxed them just for they could spend it on some other ridiculous item for themselves. The king knew that the 3rd estate didn?t have the money to spare on taxes, but King Louis XVI did not care. Unfortunately, the taxes were put on the people who had the least amount of money, when the taxes should have been put on everyone in France in an equal way.

Models of Teaching

1. (a) One of my unit plans major strengths is the way in which it utilized many different teaching strategies that are compatible with the different ways in which students learn. Visual learners are able to benefit from in class activities such as identifying vocabulary words on a blueprint and collecting magazine photos of items from the vocabulary list and making a collage. Students who learn best through physical activity will become more familiar with vocabulary words through activities like purchasing the vocabulary items at a simulated store and participating in role play activities. Students who learn by hearing will also benefit from role play activities and hearing and using the vocabulary in the dialogue that will be used and practiced in class. Another strength of my unit plan is the emphasis it places on combing individual learning activities with group work. Individual activities will allow the student to commit the daily lessons to memory at his or her own pace, and they will also allow an informal opportunity for assessment. Group activities will facilitate the development of the students’ social skill. (b) My plan focuses heavily on the Application level of Bloom’s Taxonomy. Students are required to use the newly acquired vocabulary words to describe items they may need for class. They are also required to use the words to describe items they have at home, and items they would like to have, thus allowing the students to apply the newly learned words to everyday life. The students will also apply the vocabulary in activities such as the simulated store setting and in group activities in which they will engage in dialogue and describe the items they have in class. (c) I would strengthen my plan by creating more interdisciplinary learning experience. Although my plan does somewhat incorporate interdisciplinary learning by including an activity in which students will identify vocabulary items that are needed for other classes (i.e. pencil, eraser, calculator for math), there are other ways in which different academic subject areas may be combined to facilitate learning in Spanish. 2. (a) Assessment will have two primary roles in my instruction. First, it will serve to help in gauging the different ways in which the students learn and their areas of strength and weakness. In this way, assessment will provide feedback regarding how lessons and teaching methods can be tailored to best meet the needs of each student. (b) Second, state standards will serve as a minimum target level of achievement that I would work to assist each student in meeting and exceeding. (c) An example of an assessment that I would use to gain feedback is the oral vocabulary test, which requires the students to listen to, spell, and define the word. Tests which focus on grammar and writing skills will not only be used to gauge the student’s skill levels, but they will also be used to ensure that the students are meeting state requirements in areas such as writing, grammar, and comprehension. 3. I would first look at the areas in which the students struggled as well are areas in which the students may have strengths. I would then determine the ways in which student is best able to learn (i.e. visually, orally, or by participating in activities). After determining the student’s learning style, I would focus on these students more during activities which incorporate the specific style in which the student is best able to learn. Finally, I would pair those students who struggle with stronger students during group activities so that the students who struggled on last year’s assessments may interact with their peers and be helped by them. B. I would like to incorporate a real-life example that focuses on the lesson (i.e. a Spanish-themed television show, video, book, or movie that focuses on the typical day of Spanish youth at home and at school). After presenting the material to the class, the students would report on their observations of a typical day in the life of the Spanish characters, and they would give their opinions on Spanish culture and how it compares to their own culture. This activity would help students improve their listening skills (in the case of a video, television show, or movie) or their reading skills (in the case of a book). The report that the students would be required to complete and present would allow students to develop their writing and presentation skills.

Provide Displays in Schools Essay

The school’s setting on displays show that displays are allowed on the walls in the classrooms, corridors, in the school hall and sometimes in the offices. By having displays up around the school it gives the children a sense of achievement and the children will feel valued. Also by having displays up on the walls in the school, it makes the school look brighter, and more cheerful. The policy on displays includes that the display should create awareness and give information. It should give information on what ever subject it has been based on. The display should have a clear title and name tags of who ever made the display, which shows the achievement of the child or class. Other pupils should learn from these displays and gain knowledge or experience. The children should always have an input with the displays, including colour, pattern and design of the display because this will get them working together and they will gain experience. A teacher or teaching assistant will decide where to put the display, and make sure that it is an appropriate place to put it, to make sure it is safe. The health and safety of the staff, pupils and visitors should be taken into consideration of the location of the display, just in case things stick out of this display because it may cause harm to someone. You should laminate the paper before sticking it on and blue tack should be used instead of pins because it is a lot safer and cleaner. The staff must be aware of the object on the display that could cause harm to someone. Someone should take regular inspection of the display just in case something has broken and is hanging off or has fallen to the floor, causing a health risk. It’s important to have displays in the school because it shows a sense of pride and appreciation of the children work, because nothing shows you like and appreciate someone’s work than hanging it so everyone can see it. The children will feel their work is thought of and valued. Also by having displays on the wall, they don’t go unnoticed which means when a display has had it’s time and needs to be updated, you can’t ignore it. It also means that you have to look after the display so it keeps a good example on the school and makes the people who made it look good. Displays can decorative and make a classroom look a lot more interesting and brighter. This can directly impact a pupil into a having a positive state of mind, helping a pupil try harder and complete work and learn, all from the motivation of a display. In general when you pass something everyday you tend to notice the details about it, so when you pass a big colourful display in the corridor you will gain more knowledge about it everyday. I think this benefits a child’s learning in the school. The risk assessment of the display is always important because you need to think of a lot of different things to ensure the staff, pupil and visitors safety. The first thing you need to think of is; where is the display? Is it in a suitable area where it will not damage or injure anyone? Another question you need to ask yourself is; what is on the display? You need to ensure that there is nothing on the display that is sharp, could burn or injure. It shouldn’t be able to dislodge, shouldn’t belong to anyone but you, it can’t be poisonous and it should not rot. You need to asses how things are fixed to the display because they should not be able to dislodge. You also need to think of who will interact with the display, for example a small child could be very interested in the display, but there could be heavy object attached to it. Therefore you will need to ensure the child’s safety by either not including this heavy object on the display, or putting it high enough and stable enough out of the child’s reach.

Free Essays on Population Growth

â€Å"Carrying capacity- The maximum number of individuals that a given environment can support without detrimental effects.† With a current population of about 6.2 billion people, the Earth is rapidly approaching its carrying capacity. Developing countries are already experiencing the consequences from a saturated planet. It is only a matter of time before we, the already developed countries, suffer the same fate. Our negligence towards the Third World population boom is a time-bomb waiting to happen. Where will these people go once there is no room left in their own countries? It’s simple physics, particles in an area of high concentration will move to an area of lower concentration. They will migrate to healthier, higher standard of living areas of the world bringing along disease, poverty, and ignorance. Our efforts to ease the situation are not substantial, our methods are ineffective, and our determination to help is fleeting. We must accept the fact that this is going to be a long battle carried out over many generations. We are simultaneously faced with the burden of educating growin g numbers of children, creating more jobs, dealing with hunger, famine, war, and counteracting the detrimental effects of these growing populations such as deforestation, soil erosion, and contaminated water supplies. What we once thought as being â€Å"there† problem is rapidly becoming â€Å"our† problem. Today’s graph of population growth is an exponential one. In 1807 the world’s population reached an unprecedented 1 billion. Less than two hundred years later it stands at 6 billion with no signs of slowing down. If fertility levels remain as they are, by the year 2050, the population will have reached 11.5 billion. That is a shocking number, but what is more unbelievable is that most if not all of the increase will be from developing countries. Fertility rates in the U.S. are at an all time low at an average of 1.9 birth... Free Essays on Population Growth Free Essays on Population Growth â€Å"Carrying capacity- The maximum number of individuals that a given environment can support without detrimental effects.† With a current population of about 6.2 billion people, the Earth is rapidly approaching its carrying capacity. Developing countries are already experiencing the consequences from a saturated planet. It is only a matter of time before we, the already developed countries, suffer the same fate. Our negligence towards the Third World population boom is a time-bomb waiting to happen. Where will these people go once there is no room left in their own countries? It’s simple physics, particles in an area of high concentration will move to an area of lower concentration. They will migrate to healthier, higher standard of living areas of the world bringing along disease, poverty, and ignorance. Our efforts to ease the situation are not substantial, our methods are ineffective, and our determination to help is fleeting. We must accept the fact that this is going to be a long battle carried out over many generations. We are simultaneously faced with the burden of educating growin g numbers of children, creating more jobs, dealing with hunger, famine, war, and counteracting the detrimental effects of these growing populations such as deforestation, soil erosion, and contaminated water supplies. What we once thought as being â€Å"there† problem is rapidly becoming â€Å"our† problem. Today’s graph of population growth is an exponential one. In 1807 the world’s population reached an unprecedented 1 billion. Less than two hundred years later it stands at 6 billion with no signs of slowing down. If fertility levels remain as they are, by the year 2050, the population will have reached 11.5 billion. That is a shocking number, but what is more unbelievable is that most if not all of the increase will be from developing countries. Fertility rates in the U.S. are at an all time low at an average of 1.9 birth...

Family Structure Analysis via Film †Kramer vs. Kramer

Family Structure Analysis via Film – Kramer vs. Kramer The entire infrastructure of people’s culture/civilization/society is comprised of a socialization process. This process is interwoven with personal impressions, ideas, emotions and prejudices as ideologies. Inherited norms, customs, and ideologies are vital components that comprise the socialization process.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Family Structure Analysis via Film – Kramer vs. Kramer specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Such a process equips an individual with the necessary skills needed to function in their society and thereby insures social and cultural continuity or permanence (Clausen, 5). Key to the socialization process is the family unit which is the cornerstone and basic/indelible institution of any civilization. Through the family unit, in particular the nuclear family unit (a biologically related family comprised of a father, mother, and children who dwell in one household) the above me ntioned components are taught. How has the socialization process via the family unit been reflected in the artistic component of culture? It is mirrored simply through mass media entertainment (film/cinema, radio, television, etc.) whose influence and proliferation has been phenomenal. Technological expediency made it an unequaled facet of entertainment in the 20th century and cultural measuring rod. A cadre of distinguished and thought provoking films has depicted the family unit and its dynamics with Kramer vs. Kramer among them. The 1979 American film version of Avery Corman’s novel of the same, Kramer vs. Kramer was a directed by the prolific director/screenwriter Robert Benton and stared Dustin Hoffman, Meryl Streep, Jane Alexander, film legend Howard Duff and newcomer/child star, Justin Henry. The film chronicles the separation and eventual divorce of Ted (Hoffman) and Joanna Kramer and its impact on them as well as their son, Billy (Henry). A workaholic advertising exe cutive, Ted has become mentally estranged from his family compelling Joanna, a stay at home mother who feels she has lost her sense of self, to leave.Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Catapulted into single parenthood, Ted struggles to relate and connect with Billy. Thru time and with the help of his neighbor/ kindred spirit Margaret (Alexander), another single parent, they cope and eventually bond. Joanna returns for Billy and an emotional/heart wrenching custody battle ensues with Ted being represented by hardcore attorney John Shaunessy (Duff). Under the premise that a mother is best fit to raise a child, the court awards custody to Joanna. In the end Joanna sincerely comes to the realization that it is better for Billy to remain with Ted. Kramer vs. Kramer was indicative of the social reality of the 70’s and 80’s which saw a dramatic shift in attitudes about parenthood. Although a mother physically births a child, both parents are involved in the conception, nurturing and raising process. The traditional or stereotypical nuclear family portrays a two parent home where the father is present physically but not mentally in the nurturing and raising portion as depicted by Ted. Society promotes and encourages a two parent home with the hidden reality that the mother must be present to truly raise the child or is better suited to raise a child (e.g. custody awarded to Joanna). A hidden imbalance existed in the Kramer home and Joanna’s leaving brought this imbalance to the forefront. It took the removal of the mother to illustrate the importance of the father being in the home to help raise children. Ted was not a nurturing father/parent and only focused on what he wanted Joanna to be as parent/wife and not himself. As he confesses in one scene, â€Å"I kept trying to make her be a certain kind of person. A certain kind of wife t hat I thought she was supposed to be (Kramer vs. Kramer).† Both parents must be actively involved in the nurturing and raising of their children. Loss of sense of self and self worth in a parenting situation (Joann’s leaving) is the result of lack of concern for each other’s wellbeing and teamwork. A parent’s true value to their children is imparting a sense of themselves (character, etc.) to them. The film’s ending implies that although the family unit is broken, both Ted and Joanna come to accept and value each others roles (father, mother) and most importantly their primary parental responsibility – the wellbeing of their child. Bibliography Clausen, John A. Socialization and Society. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1968.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Family Structure Analysis via Film – Kramer vs. Kramer specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Kramer vs. Kramer, 1979.

How to Identify Types of Trees in North America

How to Identify Types of Trees in North America The easiest way to identify North American trees is by looking at their branches. Do you see leaves or needles? Does the foliage last all year or is it shed annually? These clues will help you identify just about any hardwood or softwood tree you see in North America.  Think you know your North American trees? Hardwood Trees Hardwoods are  also known as angiosperms, broadleaf, or deciduous trees. They are  abundant in the eastern forests of North America, though they can be found throughout the continent. Broadleaf trees, as the name suggests, bear leaves that vary in size, shape, and thickness. Most hardwoods shed their leaves annually; American holly and evergreen magnolias are two exceptions. Deciduous trees reproduce by bearing fruit that contains a seed or seeds. Common types of hardwood fruit include  acorns, nuts, berries, pomes (fleshy fruit like apples), drupes (stone fruit like peaches), samaras (winged pods), and capsules (flowers).  Some deciduous trees, such as oak or hickory, are very hard indeed. Others, like birch, are fairly soft.   Hardwoods have either simple or compound leaves. Simple leaves are just that: a single leaf attached to a stem. Compound leaves have multiple leaves attached to a single stem. Simple leaves can be further divided into lobed and unlobed. Unlobed leaves may have a smooth edge like a magnolia or a serrated edge like an elm. Lobed leaves have complex shapes that radiate either from a single point along the midrib  like maple or from multiple points like white oak. When it comes to the  most common North American trees, the red alder is number one. Also known as Alnus rubra, its Latin name, this deciduous tree can be identified by oval-shaped leaves with serrated edges and a defined tip, as well as rust-red bark. Mature red alders range from about 65 feet to 100 feet in height, and they are generally found in the western U.S. and Canada. Softwood Trees Softwoods  are  also known as  gymnosperms, conifers or evergreen trees. They are  abundant throughout  North America. Evergreens retain their needle- or scale-like foliage year-round; two exceptions are the bald cypress and tamarack. Softwood trees bear their fruit in the form of cones. Common needle-bearing conifers include spruce, pine, larch, and fir. If the tree has scale-like leaves, then it is probably a cedar or juniper, which are also coniferous trees. If the tree has bunches or clusters of needles, it is pine or larch. If its needles are arrayed neatly along a branch, its  fir or spruce. The trees cone can provide clues, too. Firs have upright cones that are often cylindrical. Spruce cones, by contrast, point downward. Junipers dont have cones; they have small clusters of blue-black berries. The most common softwood tree in North America is the  bald cypress. This tree is atypical  in that it drops its needles annually, hence the bald in its name. Also known as  Taxodium distichum, the bald cypress is found along the coastal wetlands and low-lying areas of the Southeast and Gulf Coast region. Mature bald cypress grows to a height of 100 to 120 feet. It has flat-bladed leaves about 1 cm in length that fans out along twigs. Its bark is gray-brown to red-brown and fibrous.

Eusebius - History of the First Church Term Paper

Eusebius - History of the First Church - Term Paper Example Nothing is known of the parents of Eusebius, though, it is clear from his works that he must have received an extensive education in philosophy, biblical and theological sciences. He was greatly admired and cherished as a man and regarded as one who was very influential over his colleagues. At one time he was Presbyter of the Church, though it is difficult to narrow down an exact date for this. Eusebius was born C. 260 and lived through May of 339. He was baptized and ordained at Caesarea where Pamphilus gave him the name ‘Eusebius Pamphili’, meaning â€Å"son or servant of Pamphilus† (Eusebius Of Caesarea). It is possible that Eusebius was imprisoned for some time by Roman authorities as he was taunted years later for having escaped through some acts of submission though this is verified. He began to write the Ecclesiastical History during the Roman prosecutions and it was revised several times between 312 and 324. He described this work as a full and complete documented history of the Christian Church in which he used many paraphrasing and quotes from outside sources. This allowed earlier portions of work to be preserved which adds significant historical value. Eusebius’ role in the doctrinal debates and disputes within the Catholic Church during the fourth century included issues regarding the nature of Jesus Christ, enquiring as to the possibility that he had always existed in some form prior to human. Eusebius knew nothing of the Western Church and his strength was not in being a historian. Eusebius became the Bishop of Caesarea in 313 and in 318 became involved in controversy stemming from the views of a Priest from Alexander who taught subordination of the son to the father, and Eusebius, accordingly, soon became a leading supporter of Arius. Eusebius’ style was one that â€Å"weaved short entries into a broader scheme† (Ferguson), though some considered

Mamie Mannehs Arrest Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mamie Mannehs Arrest - Case Study Example Fish and Wildlife Agency has a duty to protect wild animals so that they are not endangered or made extinct and have arrested Manneh on charges of smuggling monkey meat. Her arrest may be in violation of her first amendment right to freedom of religion and the action of the federal agency amounts to a prohibition of that right. Moreover, under the Fourteenth Amendment’s, equal protection must be provided to all citizens, therefore protection must be provided to Manneh’s religious practices in the same manner that others’ religious rights and practices are respected. A strict scrutiny test will be applied by the Courts in assessing violations of fundamental constitutional rights and the right to freedom of religion is one such constitutional right. Over and above this, Manneh also belongs to a minority race which will further invoke the strict scrutiny doctrine. It may, however, be possible for the federal Agency to demonstrate a compelling state interest in this matter, since the preservation of wildlife and the containment of sources of diseases such as HIV and SARS may be adequate justification for their action in curtailing a harmful religious practice. DiMaggio could be charged under the provisions of the criminal law of battery because he has hit and threatened his girlfriend. He can also be charged for aggravated assault for slapping her several times and hurting her. He will also be guilty of homicidal violence and intent for his actions in almost burning his girlfriend’s face and threatening to shove the burning lighter down her throat.

Concert Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Concert Review - Essay Example W. J. Duthoit), Hans Christian Andersen Suite Soren Hyldgaard arr. Johan de Meij and Mother Hubbard (John Phillip Sousa). It was an evening meant for the soul to wander into the world of melody and unfettered musical imagination. The performance of this composition has heavy usage of brass and wind instruments. The sound moulded and shaped by the different wind instruments covering different frequency ranges in terms of tonal quality and also covering the musical octave. The performance at a glance was brass instrument orchestration with trumpets, saxophones, clarinets, flutes etc forming the instrumentation of the performance. The performance of the composition was predominantly of Duple Meter, in certain parts varying slightly to a double duple or triple meter (Hal Leonard Corporation 1). A multi instrumental and multi layered composition the performance showcased the dextrous application of a wide variety of brass instruments to create a resonant, soothing and rich output much like a full-fledged orchestra with a complete range of instruments. The flutes and clarinets served as the sustained background of tone supporting the trumpets playing the solo line of the composition. The heavy and simultaneous usage of multiple brass sections, percussion, xylophones and drums make the composition belong to Polyphonic texture. Multiple instruments can be clearly distinguished. The melody of the song is wavelike in nature. The performance reflects the majestic elements of thought put into the composition for example a feeling of heightened excitement and anticipation. A musical work of Rossano Galante brings a feeling of happiness, joy, celebration and mirth. Through the varying intensities of tenor saxophones and baritone trumpets the effect is unparalleled. It introduces a feeling of independence and unrestrained through the legato type application of the brass instruments. The overall composition as

Motivation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Motivation - Essay Example This piece of research work addresses motivation as an important tool that managers take in to account to get things done successfully through others. Based on Bratton’s (2012, p. 191) view that motivation highlights the nature of employment relationship, this paper explains different ways that managers use to motivate their employees. Motivation and Management Motivation is an important management strategy with which managers can accomplish their goals and lead the organization to a high performing and out-performing organization. Robbins and Judge (2011) defined motivation as a â€Å"process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of efforts toward attaining a goal† (p. 204). They identified basic three elements in motivation- intensity, direction and persistence. With intensity, they meant the way people try to work hard. High or low intensity may not always lead to favourable outcome unless people’s effort is channeled th rough direction. They also argued that motivation has persistence dimension because it is important to see how long a person can maintain effort. Motivation is something that influences people’s behavior and attitude towards pursuing a specific outcome. As Lussier, Achua and Lussier (2009, p. 79) noted, motivation is a quest for a personal gain and therefore managers have to consider it as an opportunity to be seized to help the organization achieve its goals such as increased productivity, competitive advantage and long term profitability. Daft and Lane (2008, p. 226) argued that motivation is a force, either internal or external to people, that stimulates enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a specific action that managers or leaders want them to do. Both Robbins and Judge (2011) and Daft and Lane (2008) have considered persistence as a very important element in motivation. Managers and leaders are required to use motivation as strategic link between people and their ways t o achieve organizational goals. In making motivation such as link, it should in turn direct people’s skills, talent, knowledge and experiences towards the accomplishment of organization’s goal and managers’ vision. Management creates a specific environment internal to the organization in which individuals work in groups with a view to perform efficiently and effectively towards attainment of a group or common goal. As management is a process of creating, developing and affecting organizational objectives and available resources to realize organizational aspirations, managers’ central task is managing people and motivation is at its heart. Management is simply getting things done through others and therefore managers need to understand people in the organization and their varying requirements in order to influence them by helping them meet their needs and requirements (Msoroka, 2012, p. 2). Newstrom and Davis (2004, p. 30) found that the result of an effec tive organizational behavior is motivation and therefore when motivation is combined with employee skills and abilities, it results in the achievement of performance goals and individual satisfaction as well. Motivation thus builds two-way relationship. The two-way relationship created by motivation is mutually supportive because manager and employee are jointly influencing each other as well as jointly benefiting. It highlights the view

Separation of Powers between the Three Branches of Government Essay

Separation of Powers between the Three Branches of Government - Essay Example It was, however, Charles Louis de Montesquieu who clearly defined the three branches of government and laid down the basics of the concept of separation of powers. Some countries being underpinned by the concept of separation of powers, like the United States, have written constitutions that clearly laid out and allocated the various powers and functions of the government to the different branches (Barnett pp. 105-106). This is not so in the United Kingdom. The UK Constitution does not consist of a single, written document but rather of various uncodified laws scattered in several documents like statutes, court decisions and treaties and unwritten ones like customs and conventions. A strict separation of powers normally divides separate powers and functions and allows them to the three branches government: the executive; Parliament, and; the judiciary. In the UK, the components of the three branches of governments usually share powers held by other branches in a mixed government fash ion. Eric Barendt, however, author of the book Separation of Powers does not believe that the UK necessarily has a weaker constitution because of this disparity. He believes that â€Å"the separation of powers should not be explained in terms of a strict distribution of functions between the three branches of government, but in terms of a network of rules and principles which ensure that power is not concentrated in the hands of one branch.† The UK government, like other democratic governments, has three major institutions, all exercising various functions and powers and sometimes sharing the powers of the other branches: the executive, the legislative and the judiciary. The executive department is made up the Crown and the central government, the latter of which is composed of the Prime Minister and his/her Cabinet Ministers. The central government is accountable to Parliament, which can choose to dissolve it and force a new election of a new set of officials if it believes that circumstances warrant it.  

New York City Project Part 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

New York City Project Part 4 - Essay Example Similarly, the economic recovery of the city as reflected by the improved activities at Wall Street would enable the local government in attaining the projected revenue in the budget drawn (Hillman, 2009). Consequently, the ability of the New York City local government to deliver services to the population of the city is strong due to the availability of funds to finance the government operations. Indeed, the economic recovery within the city saw the revenue collection forecast for the fiscal year of 2012 exceeding by $2.4 billions that will be useful in closing the financial gap of 2013 financial year (Bloomberg, 2013). Similarly, the fiscal budget that has been prepared by the local government of New York City allows for future modification on the allocations that have been made to the different departments. This will help the city in avoiding the current shut down crisis that is facing the federal government organs currently. Furthermore, the reducing deficit projection in the bud get implies that the financial stability of the firm is strong in allowing the city to deliver it services to the public. This will boost the ability of the New York City local government in meeting it obligations and development objectives. The financial budget for New York for the year covering 2013 financial year has projected deficit of $1.6 billion that is a reduction of $0.4 billions of the previous year deficit projection of $2 billions. The city is projecting to collect revenue of $49.2 billions from the tax and levy fees it charges to business operating in the area against an expenses projection of $50.8 billions for the financial year 2012-2013. Consequently, the municipal government of New York City has come up with a plan of issuing a municipal bond to finance it core development projects for the 2013 financial year. This will help the municipal government of New York City in closing the deficit gap. Similarly, the revenue collection that exceeded the financial forecast of 2012 has been cited as the remedy that will be utilize in closing the deficit gap that is expected in the financial year of 2013. Another strategic measure that has been cited by the local government cabinet in solving the projected deficit is contracting private firms to undertake a number of the government tasks on a long-term basis due to the improving economic environment that will enable the firm to earn high revenues to settle for the contract (Seidman, 2008). The outsourcing mechanism that has been adopted by the municipal government of New York City will help in the necessary services to the public even with the limited financial resources been projected in the budget. One of the measures that should be undertaken by the New York City municipal government to reduce the budget deficit it is facing is to downsize the number of workers (Anderson, 2011). The recurrent expenditure of the city government is biggest proportion in the budget allocation. This implies that the city government is facing unsustainable labor force that is straining it financial resources. Thus, the government should eliminate some traditional job classifications that have been overtaken by adoption of information and technology platform with the various department of the government (Titos, Makondo, & Nsingo, 2010). This will help the municipal government of New York City to reduce the current budget deficit it is facing. The trend of the New York City budget over the last five years

Separation of Powers between the Three Branches of Government Essay

Separation of Powers between the Three Branches of Government - Essay Example It was, however, Charles Louis de Montesquieu who clearly defined the three branches of government and laid down the basics of the concept of separation of powers. Some countries being underpinned by the concept of separation of powers, like the United States, have written constitutions that clearly laid out and allocated the various powers and functions of the government to the different branches (Barnett pp. 105-106). This is not so in the United Kingdom. The UK Constitution does not consist of a single, written document but rather of various uncodified laws scattered in several documents like statutes, court decisions and treaties and unwritten ones like customs and conventions. A strict separation of powers normally divides separate powers and functions and allows them to the three branches government: the executive; Parliament, and; the judiciary. In the UK, the components of the three branches of governments usually share powers held by other branches in a mixed government fash ion. Eric Barendt, however, author of the book Separation of Powers does not believe that the UK necessarily has a weaker constitution because of this disparity. He believes that â€Å"the separation of powers should not be explained in terms of a strict distribution of functions between the three branches of government, but in terms of a network of rules and principles which ensure that power is not concentrated in the hands of one branch.† The UK government, like other democratic governments, has three major institutions, all exercising various functions and powers and sometimes sharing the powers of the other branches: the executive, the legislative and the judiciary. The executive department is made up the Crown and the central government, the latter of which is composed of the Prime Minister and his/her Cabinet Ministers. The central government is accountable to Parliament, which can choose to dissolve it and force a new election of a new set of officials if it believes that circumstances warrant it.  

Non-Profit Clubs Essay Example for Free

Non-Profit Clubs Essay Earned conducting business and club income. E. g. Membership fees, sale of refreshments, donations, etc. Not sale of assets. Gain to club. Increase surplus. Answer: -membership fees -entrance fees -sale of refreshments -sale of uniforms Question Two: Definition of Expenditure: Refers to the amounts paid or payable. Normally incurred while running the club. Necessary to generate income. Either used up immediately or have no lasting value. Loss to club. Decrease surplus. Debited to Nominal accounts section in General Ledger. E. g. Rent expense, stationary, electricity, wages, etc. Answer: -uniforms to sell -refreshments to sell -electricity -water -rent expense -salaries/wages -stationary Question Three: Answer: †¢Membership Fees: –also known as subscriptions. -usually most important income (revenue) to a club, major portion. -together with additional income, cover expenses. -fixed amount. -paid by members of club. -usually payable annually, sometimes quarterly or even monthly. income to club. †¢Income Receivable/Accrued income: (same as usual), income still owed to us but not yet received. E. g. members who have not yet paid subscription. †¢Income Received in advance: (same as usual), income received before it was due to be paid. E. g. members that pay their subscription early. †¢Honorarium: -certain people that do a lot of work (bulk of the work) for the club are occasionally voted a sum of money (remunerated) as a token of appreciation at the end of the year. -expense to club. Entrance Fees: -new members may be expected to pay a fee to join the club. -normally a once off fee. -I. e. when the member joins for the first time. -income to club. †¢Affiliation Fees: -if the club wants to enter a team to play other teams in the area then the club needs to pay an ‘affiliation fee’ to the organising body. -paid annually. -expense to club. †¢Accounts using the same principle as â€Å"consumable stores† and â€Å"consumable stores on hand† and also â€Å"expenses prepaid’, etc. do in a trading concern: -e. g. tennis balls’ and ‘tennis balls on hand’ -in clubs these consumable stores are sometimes also sold as â€Å"trading stock† -once the it em is used (not necessarily used up), (by the club), it is immediately considered an expense. †¢ Refreshments: -recorded the same as one would record trading stock. †¢Membership Fees Written Off: -members would get expelled if their membership fees are not paid over a long period of time (and warning) and their bad debts would be written off. -same principal as writing off bad debts in a trading oncern. Question Four: Answer: Membership fees are due on the first day of each year. They are paid annually, directly to the club. The club has a meeting at the end of each year to clarify the membership fees of the next year. An invoice will be sent out to each member indicating the money due to the club on the first day of the year. This fee must be paid by the end of the first month. If it isn’t, the member will be addressed by the club via an email. By the end of the second month, a letter will be sent in the post. This letter will warn them of the repercussions of not paying and advise them on how they can go about paying if they are struggling (a percentage each month). These warnings will continue for the entire year. In the last month of the year they will get the final warning, which will be via email, post and face to face, in which they will be warned that if not paid by the last day of the year, the club will expel the member. If the membership fee is still not paid by the first day of the next year, it will be written off and the member will be expelled.

Globalisation And Social Security Politics Essay

Globalisation And Social Security Politics Essay The underlying idea behind social security measures is that it is a duty of the society to protect the working class that contributes to the welfare of the society against hazard. It protects not just the workman, but also his entire family in financial security and health care. The Sate bears the primary responsibility for developing appropriate system for providing protection and assistance to its workforce. Hence, a welfare state is expected to engage in all activities necessary for the promotion of the social and economic welfare of the community. But, globalisation has affected the capacity of the welfare state. This chapter undertakes the review of the literature. The chapter is organized as follows: Section 2.1 evaluates relationship between globalisation and social security and with the welfare State. Section 2.2 determines the relationship between welfare economics and social security. Section 2.3 examines the social security in developed and developing countries. Section 2.4 discusses the public action as a strategy for social security in developing countries. Section 2.5 evaluates social security in India and in Indian States. Section 2.6 compares the social security in organized and unorganized sector. Section 2.7 examines the resettlement and welfare of retired Defence personnel (ESM) / Veterans: Problems and solutions. Section 2.8 concludes the study. To have a better understanding about the impact of globalisation on social security, a review of the different studies carried out in different dimensions is essential. For the convenience of the study the literature reviewed have been classified into three categories as (a) issues related to globalisation, social security, welfare state and welfare economics, (b) issues related to social security in developed countries and in developing countries especially in India and (c) issues related to resettlement and welfare of ESM (PBOR). 2.1 Globalisation and Social Security There are few studies based on the exact relationship between globalization and social security. Most of the studies analysed globalisation in relation to its impact on welfare state. In the first perspective, DHaeseleer, Steven and Berghman, Jos (2005), argued that challenges of globalization for social security systems are real and it increases the need for redesigning social security. The study concluded by suggesting that social security provision in low-income countries should be organized in a complementary way, drawing on the strengths of both formal and informal arrangements. Future reforms should be attempted to promote economic development and international economic integration. Similar analyses offered by Dries Crevits and Bea Van Buggenhout (2005), the study attempts to assess the impact of the process of globalisation on social protection. Analysis of globalisation shows that it has increased the need for socially protective measures, considering the fact that it causes more inequality, and insecurity concerning jobs and earnings and that it has increased the territorial mobility of employees and employers. At the same time, globalisation constitutes a threat for the existing levels of social protection, as pointed out by the social dumping hypothesis. Social policy makers therefore face some tremendous challenges, building a frame for a generalised basic social protection at a global level, securing the financing of existing social security systems and adapting the schemes to the increased mobility. Jitka Dolezalova (2001), analysed the influence of globalisation on systems of Social Security in Europe. Globalisation forces the countries to compete for the investments with lower taxes, and lower social contributions. The influence of globalisation is becoming more and more substantial and globalisation process will force the Social Security Systems on a revision. Dutt, Amitava Krishna and J. Mohan Rao (2001), study recorded diverse views about effects of economic reforms on social outcomes. It analysed that employment and wages are the most important potential channels through which the social impact of globalization can be felt. Further, the study point out that impact of globalisation can be seen in government policy for spending on social security programmes. 2.1.1 Globalisation, social security and welfare State The relationship between globalization and welfare state is addressed in this section. There is a wide divergence of views as to how globalization impacts on the welfare state. In most of the studies, international comparisons tend to be confined to particular organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries in welfare spending such as Germany, Britain, Japan, Sweden, and the USA, and neglected the developing countries. Bowles, Paul and Barnet Wagman (1997), identified four hypotheses concerning the relationship between globalization and welfare state in the context of OECD countries namely, downward harmonization hypothesis, upward convergence hypothesis, the convergence hypothesis and the globalization irrelevance hypothesis. To prove the hypothesis the indicators like welfare state spending on education, health and social security and welfare has been used. The results shown that globalization may indeed have posed a challenge to the welfare state. Rudra, Nita (2004), investigates the relationship between openness, government social expenditures (i.e., education, health, and social security and welfare), and income distribution through a time-series cross-sectional panel data set for 35 less developed countries (LDCs) from 1972 to 1996. The results show that while all categories of social spending help improve income distribution in richer countries, the effects of social spending are much less favourable in LDCs. Only spending on education in LDCs encourages a more favorable distribution of income in the face of globalization. The pressures of a more competitive global economy increase incentives for more redistributive education spending, whereas publicly sponsored health programs and, particularly, social security and welfare programs confront greater political lobbying. Deacon, Bob (2000), argues that neoliberal globalization is presenting a challenge to welfare provisioning in the industrialized countries and to the prospects for equitable social development in developing and transition economies. This challenge flows partly from the unregulated nature of the emerging global economy and partly from intellectual currents dominant in the global discourse concerning social policy and social development. The study contends that certain global conditions are undermining the prospects for the alternative: equitable public social provision in both developed and developing countries. These conditions include the World Banks preference for a safety-net and privatizing strategy for welfare; the self-interest of international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in providing basic education, health and livelihood services that might otherwise be provided by the state; and the World Trade Organizations (WTOs) push for an open global market in health services, education and social insurance. Ming-Chnag Tsai (2007), study investigated the effect of globalization on progress in human well-being by using a time-series cross-national data during 1980-2000, a period that observed an extremely high tide of global flows crossing borders to deepen international economic integration, establish supranational governance, and foster cultural harmonization. The study contributes in offering a theoretical model and providing empirical evidence by testing the hypothesized relationship between globalization and human well-being. It is concluded that globalization identified by increased global flows and exchanges contributes rather than hampers progress in human welfare. Stefanie, Walter (2010), discussed how globalization affects the welfare state. Based on survey data from Switzerland, the study provides empirical micro foundations for the compensation hypothesis. It finds that globalization losers are more likely to express feelings of economic insecurity. Such feelings, in turn, increase preferences for welfare state expansion, which in turn increase the likelihood of voting for the Social Democratic Party. The analysis also shows that globalization losers and winners differ significantly with regard to their social policy preferences and their propensity to vote for left parties. Burgoon, Brain (2001), argued that globalisation may have varying effects on welfare policy. It can spark more concentrated demand for welfare compensation or less compensation. The vulnerable group demand for more compensation. To prove the same, a cross-sectional data on the relationship between openness and welfare spending for eighteen OECD countries for the period 1961-94 analysed with regression analysis. The result shows that openness has a slight effect on welfare outcomes and therefore, it is not the most important determinant of welfare efforts in OECD countries. From the above review, it is possible to identify two main arguments about the current and future condition of the welfare state under globalization: the first of these claims that globalization erodes the welfare states and its foundations; the second claims that globalization effects are absorbed and mediated by the welfare state. 2.2 Welfare Economics and social security From macro-economics angle, social security policies are always analysed within the framework of welfare state theories. The extent of welfarism undertaken by the nation-states consequently, became the benchmark in understanding different social security mechanisms. This approach evaluates social security policies in terms of the quantum of the programmes and aggregate of expenditures. On the other side, micro-economics analyse the issue of social security and welfare  [1]  policies in the framework of welfare economics. Welfare economics examine the effects of economic policies on the welfare level of individuals or groups of people (social welfare). Social security is a part of economic policy which contributes to social welfare. To compare situations in the society economists had constructed welfare criterias. A brief historical survey of welfare economics will provide us the tools given by welfare economics to measure the welfare and maximising the social welfare. The theory underlying social welfare can be traced back to the welfare economics. It is discussed below. Classical Economist on social welfare Jeremy Bentham  [2]  defined social welfare as the sum total of the happiness (or welfare) of all the individuals in society. Following Benthams doctrine, Pigou (1920) defined social welfare as the arithmetic sum of the individual welfare. According to him, social welfare increases if there is an increase in national dividend without any increase in the supply of factors, and a transfer of wealth from rich to the poor. In nutshell, social welfare was regarded by the economists of cardinal utility tradition as the arithmetic sum of the utility gained by the individual members of society. This concept of social welfare has, however, met with certain serious objections. First, it is argued that utility cannot be cardinally measured and, hence, cannot be added to obtain the social welfare. It is, therefore, meaningless to define social welfare as the sum of the individual utilities. This objection is universally accepted. Secondly, it is also widely accepted that ordinal measurement of utilities is not possible either and, therefore, inter-personal comparison of utilities is not possible in an objective or scientific manner. It would, therefore, not be possible to determine how a change in existing pattern of resource allocation would affect the aggregate welfare unless it is unrealistically assumed that all individuals have identical income-utility and commodity-utility functions. Owing to these problems, Benthams and Pigovian concepts of social welfare had become in- operational, in the sense that, it cannot be used objectively in any policy formulation. Therefore, th e cardinal utilitarian thesis that the welfare of different individuals could be added up to arrive at the welfare of society had to be abandoned. The need for to judge the events and policies economically, leads to development of the idea of social optimum by Pareto (1896). Pareto: Concept of Welfare This concept is central to Paretos welfare economics. According to Pareto, although it is not possible to measure and add up utilities of individuals to arrive at the total social welfare, it is possible to determine whether social welfare is optimum. Conceptually, social welfare is said to be optimum when nobody can be made better-off without making somebody worse-off. Its important to note that Paretos concept of social optimum does not define or suggest a magnitude of optimum social welfare. Pareto was concerned with the question whether the magnitude of social welfare from a given economic situation can be or cannot be increased by changing the economic situation. The test of increase in social welfare is that at least one person should be made better-off without making anybody else worse-off. The Modern View of Social Optimum According to the modern view of social optimum, it is difficult to conceive economic policies which can improve the welfare of an individual without injuring the other. To overcome this problem, economists, viz., Kaldor-Hicks (1939) have evolved the compensation principle. It asserts that, even if the economic change makes some person better off and other worse off, the change is still desirable provided the gainers can compensate the losers for their loss. This principle recognizes that most economic policy measures make some one better off and someone worse off. It does not attempt to quantify the total social welfare. It concerns itself with only the indicators of change in welfare. The present study applies Kaldor-Hicks compensation criteria to analyse the impact of globalisation on social security (with respect to resettlement and welfare benefits) of retired army PBOR. It has been discussed in detail in chapter-3. The concept of social security has been playing important role in developed as well as in developing countries. The following section reviews the literature on social security in developed and developing countries. 2.3 Social Security in developed and developing Countries Johanees, Jutting (1999), overviewed the kinds of social security systems that are currently in place in developed and developing countries. It dealt with the reasons for the failure of the State and the market in providing social security in the developing countries. It presents an overview of the importance of the State, market, community and private household-based social security systems in the developing world. Midgley, James (1984), analysed the growth of social security system in developing countries, in African, Asian and Central and S. American countries during the colonial period. Although more and more developing countries established social security schemes covering a large number of contingencies since the mid 50s, the situation is basically similar to that of the pre-war colonial period when a very small number of individuals and their dependents were covered by social security. The system caters only to small proportion of the labour force engaged in regular wage or salaried employment in the urban areas of developing countries, while the majority of the population who work in subsistence agriculture in the urban informal sector is excluded. Dreze, Jean and Amartya Sen (1999), addressed some foundational and strategic issues of social security, including the nature and form of human deprivation, the distinction between protective and promotional social security, the interconnections between economic growth and public support, the influence of market mechanism, and the relationship between State action and public action. Atkinson, A.B. and John Hills (1999), investigated the relevance of the experiences of the developed countries to the strategy of social security in developing countries. They bring out how the social security system of developed countries has evolved along quite different routes, in response to country specific objectives, constraints and pressures. Wouter van Ginneken (2003), reviewed the main trends and policy issues with regard to the extension of social security in developing countries. It shows that in many middle-income countries, statutory social insurance can form the basis for the extension process. However, this is generally not so in the low-income countries, where only a small minority of the population is covered by social security. The paper concludes national policies should consist of improving and reforming statutory social insurance programmes, of promoting community and area based social insurance schemes. The above studies are related to types of social security system, growth and trends of social security in developed and developing countries. It also reveals that the issues in developing countries, where the social security is yet to become full fledged, are however, entirely different from the developed countries. There are very few studies on social security systems in the developing countries. 2.4 Public Action A strategy for Social Security in developing countries The ILO defines social security vary narrowly and advocates strategy of social insurance and social assistance for providing social security. It does not capture the socio-economic conditions (deprivation and vulnerability) of developing countries like India (discussed in detail in chapter-3). Therefore, public action has been suggested as a strategy to provide social security in developing countries. In this context, Dreze, Jean and Amartya Sen (1999) argued on the basis of economic analysis as well as empirical evidence, that public support has an irreplaceable role to play in removing deprivation and vulnerability, and that this role can be played quite effectively even at an early stage of development. Burges, Robin and Nicholas Stern (1999) provided a systematic analysis of the content of social security, the motivation for public support, the possible contributions of different agents, and the dilemmas that public action has to face. The study strongly supported for extensive public involvement in the fields of social security. Agarwal, Bina (1999) investigates some aspects of the relation between public action and family relations in the provision of social security. This study examines the survival strategies of vulnerable households, with special attention to issues of intra-household inequalities. The study brings out the close connection between the external and internal vulnerabilities of particular household and suggests public action to support more vulnerable individuals. Datta, Rakesh (1998) studied mathadi labour market in Mumbai where unionization of mathadi workers as a case of public action enabled the manual workers in unorganised sector to achieve protective Social Security benefits. The study suggested that public action can play a central role in ensuring expansion and monitoring of social security. Ambalavanam V and S Madheswaran (2001), analysed the social protection measures available to urban informal sector workers in Erode district of Tamil Nadu. Public action was suggested towards the goal of extending social cover to wider population on the line of traditional societies protecting the interest of the people in a locality. 2.3 Social Security in India In the Indian context, Varandani, G (1987), discussed the historical development of the concept of social security workers for Industrial workers in India since ancient times. The study observed that although the constitution of India imposed on the State to protect the interest of industrial workers either by statutory or non-statutory measures or with the help of economic institutions but the State has not succeeded up to now to achieve the satisfactory results in the field by providing sufficient social security benefits to the Industrial workers. The cause attributed for failure of the State is the lack of proper planning, improper implementation, and lack of sufficient fund with the government. Subrahmanya, R.K.A. (1995), analysed the social security schemes promotional and protective schemes provided by the Central government, State governments, and Private sector to the employees both, in the organised sector and unorganised sector. The study pointed out that social security system in India is characterized by multiplicity and heterogeneity of schemes administered by different agencies namely Central government, State governments and also by some voluntary organizations. The cash benefits under the ESI scheme and the schemes under the EPF act administered by Central organization, the administration of all other schemes is in the hands of the State Governments. A coordinated approach has been lacking. It leading to wide gaps in the coverage hand and overlapping of benefits. As there is no unified system of social security, there is also no uniform coverage. Different groups of the people receive different types of benefits. Planning Commission report on Labour and Employment in the Tenth plan (2002) examined the efforts made through earlier plans to extend the coverage of social security through various acts and laws as well as through programmes viz. social insurance schemes, centrally funded social assistance programmes, social welfare funds etc. It suggested in the tenth plan to provide the social security to the organized and unorganized sector workers on self-sustaining and self-financing basis without putting any additional pressure on the budget of the government. It advocated that in time of liberalisation and globalisation, there is a need of comprehensive social security policy for a large section of the society by integrating the services of the existing schemes Wardhan, S. K. (1992) studied the role of social security in the context of stabilization and structural adjustment programmes and change in the new industrial policy of India. The restructuring of the industry may substantially add to number of unemployed and create serious and additional social problems. The existing social security can play a substantial role in the alleviation of the suffering caused by displacement of labour due to restructuring of the economy. It stressed that there should be a single agency providing comprehensive package of social insurance including unemployment benefits. Hirway, Indira (1994) argued that inspite of recent shift in policy towards market economy and the resource constraint the government could not evade that responsibility. A comprehensive and integrated system of social security in India would have to comprise of a variety of elements based on anti-poverty programme covering not only the workers but also the unemployed and the destitute in the form of social assistance as well as social insurance. Prabhu, K Seeta (2001), viewed that the provision of socio-economic security in India has been unsatisfactory. The Government and the community constitute the two pillars that need to be strengthened for meeting the genuine need for socio-economic security of the masses in India, particularly during the period of economic reforms. Jetli, N.K. (2004) studied that the social security situation in India is characterized by ambiguity in policy and responsibility. There is a variety of schemes but these have been framed at various point of time and, therefore, do not confirm to any overall design reflecting a comprehensive and consistent policy or direction. Report of the Study Group on Social Security (2002) recommended for an integrated and comprehensive system of Social Security in India which will encompass the whole population of diverse needs. It cannot be a single scheme but a combination of schemes catering to the needs of different groups with different needs and different paying capacities. To cover the entire population the study group suggested four tier structure Social Assistance programmes financed wholly tax based and financed from the exchequer Schemes which are partly contributory and partly subsidized by the State Wholly contributory Social Insurance schemes Voluntary schemes On social security expenditure, Dev, S Mahendra and Jos Mooji (2002), examined trends in social sector expenditure in the central and state budgets for 1990-91 to 2000-2001. In this analysis they included social services as well as rural development expenditure. They would like to conclude with two observations. First, there is an urgent need for steeping up social sector expenditure. Second, there is an obvious need for stepping up social sector expenditure. Similarly, Prabhu, K Seeta (2001), also analysed the protective and promotional security expenditures of the Union government and 15 major State governments. 2.5.1 Social Security in Indian States Dev, S Mahendra (2002,) reviewed the experience of the growth-mediated  [3]  and support-led social security arrangements for the unorganised sector in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The author argued that, in the context of marketisation, there is a substantial section of society which does not have the resource power to enter into market operations. The government and those who are already in the market have the responsibility in providing Social Security for the large sections of unorganised workers and other vulnerable groups who are out of the market. But, the government cannot provide security to these workers as there are limits to its administrative and financial capacity. There is a need for public-private partnership in providing social and economic security for unorganised workers. Kannan, K.P. and Shaji K Francis (2001), highlighted the impressive performance of social sectors achieved mainly through State-sponsored social security measures with public support in Kerala. Compared to other States, Kerala spends a larger share of its budgetary resources on State-assisted social security programmes like food security and employment security, which need to further strengthened rather than expanded. It also demonstrates the possibility of extending the provisioning of social security to a larger proportion of population who are outside the formal sector of employment. Unni, Jeemol and Uma Rani (2001), carried out a study on social protection in informal economy for informal workers in Gujrat. Traditionally, social security instruments addressed contingencies arising from random shocks and only affecting basic securities such as illness or sudden death. In globalising world, social protection in the context of poor informal workers needs to address both the economic and basic security issues. Besides, the government, private market and NGO initiatives need to be strengthened and many pore innovative approaches have to be devised to bring social protection to poor informal workers. Vijay, G (2001), analysed social security of labour in the post-liberalisation period in new industrial towns with reference to the State of Andhra Pradesh. It views that; the opening up of markets has resulted in the growth of new industries. The most obvious impact of this has been an increase in the process of flexiblisation and, therefore informalisation in the new industries, resulting in the conditions of labour supply becoming highly vulnerable. Examining the social security benefits of labour in the context of its informalisation, the Mehboob Nagar case reveals that besides the well-recognized insecurities like lack of job security and absence of minimum level of wages, inadequate housing and health facilities, old age and retirement benefits, several other insecurities are faced by the contract and casual labourers. 2.6 Social security in organized and unorganized sector: Methods, problems and solution Thakur, C.P. and C.S. Venkat Ratnam (2001), analysed social security for organised sector in the background of constitutional and legal provisions. The emerging trends, in the wake of structural adjustment programme shows that, the government continues to have welfare orientation but is both reluctant and unable to raise contributions commensurate with the needs from its budgetary resources. Its prime concern seems mainly to encourage savings in the economy. As far as employees are concerned, they want income and other sources of security for their employees, which is efficiency enhancing. Workers interest continues to lie in seeking further improvement of existing benefits. Dev, S Mahendra (1996) reviewed the performance and issues relating to concept, policies, financing and effectiveness of social security for Indian workers in the unorganised sector. The performance and issues relate to five types of social securities, namely, food, employment, health, education and women. The performance has not been satisfactory during the first few years of the reform period. Expenditure in some of the social security programmes may have to be increased in order to cushion the poor during the reform period in order to face the negative consequences of reforms. However, in the short and medium terms, the social security programmes (both promotional and preventive) may have to be continued till economic growth makes some of these programmes redundant. For effective implementation of the programmes, there is a need to have decentralization, transparency in decision making, right to information and social mobilization. On the ways to provide social security, Ginneken, N.V. (1998), viewed that employment is the most important guarantee for social protection in both the organized and unorganized sector. It provides the basis for earnings, part of which can be saved for insurance -private or social. Social security protection is not just the consequence of a sufficient level of earnings: it also contributes to greater productivity and earnings. Guhan, S (1993), analysed the problem of social security for the unorganized poor in general. Providing access to assets for the poor is a basic form of social security. The assistance in the form of creation of assets, assurance of minimum wages, food security, subsidized insurance and social assistance for various purposes could provide social security to different groups. Pillai, S Mohanan (1996) provided an empirical verification of the effectiveness of welfare fund schemes in providing Social Security to the casual workers in the unorganised sector through a case study of scheme for the welfare of loading workers. The study revealed that the welfare funds scheme has brought about drastic changes in the living conditions of the workers both socially and economically. It found be a new experiment not only in providing social security to the under-privileged segments of the workforce but also in the financing of social security for unorganized sector in a resource constrained economy. Ginneken, N.V. (1998) highlighted the major problems pertaining to the existing measures of social protection a. Inadequacy of coverage and benefits of social security Existence of wide variations in standards of social security, eligibility criteria and scale of be

U.S involvement in Bosnia :: essays research papers

The United States Involvement in Bosnia; is it positive or negative. After a lifetime of war in Bosnia, can the United States really offer positive change? To truly get a feel for the conflict in this region we must first look at the long-standing hatred between the occupying ethnic groups: Serbs, Muslims, and Croats. From 1481 to 1903 the Ottoman Empire was the ruling body over the entire Balkan region. By the early nineteen hundreds the Ottoman Empire had collapsed. In 1918, at the end of World War One, Russia annexed the Balkan region renaming it Yugoslavia. In 1919 Joseph Stalin, Communist ruler of Russia and its satellite states (i.e. Yugoslavia), appointed Tito to be the head of Yugoslavia. Tito quickly became an iron fisted and ruthless dictator. The Machiavellian characteristics exhibited by Tito have given all Serbs a reputation as being strong armed and merciless. With Tito’s death in 1991, Yugoslavia collapsed and split into 3 independent states: Bosnia, Herzegovina , and Croatia. In 1994 Slovadon Malosovitch was elected ruler of the Serbian state. Incidents of mass genocide and several other war crimes became regular occurrences under his rule. The Bosnian crisis has shown the world the worst of human nature. On behalf of the United Nations, in an effort to settle the unrest in the Balkan region, The United States became involved in 1995. The United States involvement includes: the commitment of twenty thousand troops, the troop support of legions of tanks and other vehicles, and the â€Å"full support† of the United States Government. Unfortunately this upset the native Bosnian people. So, although the United States feels obligated to help the Bosnian Cause, they may be worsening the situation with their involvement, both there and in the U.S There are two sides to this story. The first is the opinion that the United States should completely withdraw from Bosnia. The other opinion is that the United States should go headlong and give B osnia their full support, and commit more troops and more supplies to the Bosnian Cause. There are some positive things done by the United States in Bosnia. The presence of U.S troops did bring temporary peace to the area. Although the peace is purely an act, it does give leaders time to talk and plan without worrying about their people dying. Also, the United States presence in Bosnia helped to eradicate the most horrific problem in Bosnia, large Serbian concentration camps and mass Albanian genocide.

Road to Valley Forge :: essays research papers

The Road to Valley Forge   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book that I choose to review was The Road to Valley Forge, How Washington Built the Army that Won the Revolutionary War, written by John Buchanan. This is a book that covers the beginning of the revolutionary war in America from the time that George Washington is selected as commander-in-chief of the army, until his army enters winter quarters at Valley Forge. It encompasses the weather conditions that Washington and his army had to endure as well as the scrutiny that Washington always seemed to be under. The scrutiny came from people in congress who believed that the war was going to be quick and wanted a large, decisive battle fought.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  George Washington took control of the revolutionary army on 2 July 1775. He took over at outside of Boston, before this his experience was limited to wilderness travel and soldiering. His soldiering experiences had been mainly for his home state of Virginia. The first battle that was of significance in this book was the Battle of Long Island. At this battle Washington and the rebel army are soundly defeated by General Sir William Howe and the British army. After this battle was fought Howe did not follow-up the victory with quick action as the Americans retreated. It could be said that if Howe and the British would continued the attack this rebellion could have been put down right away. This will not be the first time that Howe fails to do this, and it will lead to him being replaced later in the war Sir Henry Clinton. Even though his army was thoroughly defeated Washington is able to get his troops off of Long Island back to Manhattan in the middle of the night, this will also not be the last time that Washington is able to get his   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2 army out of harms way. The author briefly discusses the troubles at Kip’s Bay and Fort Washington.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The next subject that Buchanan goes into is Washington’s retreat through the state of New Jersey. The key part of this retreat is when Washington crosses the Potomac River he collects all boats from both shores of the river. He later uses them to cross the icy Potomac to win the very important Battle of Trenton. The importance of this battle is that raised the morale of the soldiers. After this Howe decides to go into winter quarters.

Literary Devices Essay

LITERARY DEVICES Copyright  © 2007 by Jay Braiman www. mrbraiman. com Literary devices refers to specific aspects of literature, in the sense of its universal function as an art form which expresses ideas through language, which we can recognize, identify, interpret and/or analyze. Literary devices collectively comprise the art form’s components; the means by which authors create meaning through language, and by which readers gain understanding of and appreciation for their works. They also provide a conceptual framework for comparing individual literary works to others, both within and across genres. Both literary elements and literary techniques can rightly be called literary devices. Literary elements refers to particular identifiable characteristics of a whole text. They are not â€Å"used,† per se, by authors; they represent the elements of storytelling which are common to all literary and narrative forms. For example, every story has a theme, every story has a setting, every story has a conflict, every story is written from a particular point-of-view, etc. In order to be discussed legitimately as part of a textual analysis, literary elements must be specifically identified for that particular text. Literary techniques refers to any specific, deliberate constructions or choices of language which an author uses to convey meaning in a particular way. An author’s use of a literary technique usually occurs with a single word or phrase, or a particular group of words or phrases, at one single point in a text. Unlike literary elements, literary techniques are not necessarily present in every text; they represent deliberate, conscious choices by individual authors. â€Å"Literary terms† refers to the words themselves with which we identify and designate literary elements and techniques. They are not found in literature and they are not â€Å"used† by authors. Allegory: Where every aspect of a story is representative, usually symbolic, of something else, usually a larger abstract concept or important historical/geopolitical event. Lord of the Flies provides a compelling allegory of human nature, illustrating the three sides of the psyche through its sharply-defined main characters. Alliteration: The repetition of consonant sounds within close proximity, usually in consecutive words within the same sentence or line. Antagonist: Counterpart to the main character and source of a story’s main conflict. The person may not be â€Å"bad† or â€Å"evil† by any conventional moral standard, but he/she opposes the protagonist in a significant way. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. ) Anthropomorphism: Where animals or inanimate objects are portrayed in a story as people, such as by walking, talking, or being given arms, legs, facial features, human locomotion or other anthropoid form. (This technique is often incorrectly called personification. ) †¢ The King and Queen of Hearts and their playing-card courtiers comprise only one example of Carroll’s extensive use of anthropomorphism in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. Blank verse: Non-rhyming poetry, usually written in iambic pentameter. †¢ Most of Shakespeare’s dialogue is written in blank verse, though it does occasionally rhyme. Character: The people who inhabit and take part in a story. When discussing character, as distinct from characterization, look to the essential function of the character, or of all the characters as a group, in the story as a whole. †¢ Rather than focus on one particular character, Lord assembles a series of brief vignettes and anecdotes involving multiple characters, in order to give the reader the broadest possible spectrum of human behavior. Golding uses his main characters to represent the different parts of the human psyche, to illustrate mankind’s internal struggle between desire, intellect, and conscience. †¢ Characterization: The author’s means of conveying to the reader a character’s personality, life history, values, physical attributes, etc. Also refers directly to a description thereof. †¢ Atticus is characterized as an almost impossibly virtuous man, always doing what is right and imparting impeccable moral values to his children. Climax: The turning point in a story, at which the end result becomes inevitable, usually where something suddenly goes terribly wrong; the â€Å"dramatic high point† of a story. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of structure; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. ) †¢ The story reaches its climax in Act III, when Mercutio and Tybalt are killed and Romeo is banished from Verona. Conflict: A struggle between opposing forces which is the driving force of a story. The outcome of any story provides a resolution of the conflict(s); this is what keeps the reader reading. Conflicts can exist between individual characters, between groups of characters, between a character and society, etc. , and can also be purely abstract (i. e. , conflicting ideas). †¢ †¢ †¢ The conflict between the Montagues and Capulets causes Romeo and Juliet to behave irrationally once they fall in love. Jack’s priorities are in conflict with those of Ralph and Piggy, which causes him to break away from the group. Man-versus-nature is an important conflict in The Old Man and the Sea. Context: Conditions, including facts, social/historical background, time and place, etc. , surrounding a given situation. †¢ Madame Defarge’s actions seem almost reasonable in the context of the Revolution. Creative license: Exaggeration or alteration of objective facts or reality, for the purpose of enhancing meaning in a fictional context. †¢ Orwell took some creative license with the historical events of the Russian Revolution, in order to clarify the ideological conflicts. Dialogue: Where characters speak to one another; may often be used to substitute for exposition. †¢ Since there is so little stage direction in Shakespeare, many of the characters’ thoughts and actions are revealed through dialogue. Dramatic irony: Where the audience or reader is aware of something important, of which the characters in the story are not aware. †¢ Macbeth responds with disbelief when the weird sisters call him Thane of Cawdor; ironically, unbeknownst to him, he had been granted that title by king Duncan in the previous scene. Exposition: Where an author interrupts a story in order to explain something, usually to provide important background information. †¢ The first chapter consists mostly of exposition, running down the family’s history and describing their living conditions. Figurative language: Any use of language where the intended meaning differs from the actual literal meaning of the words themselves. There are many techniques which can rightly be called figurative language, including metaphor, simile, hyperbole, personification, onomatopoeia, verbal irony, and oxymoron. (Related: figure of speech) †¢ The poet makes extensive use of figurative language, presenting the speaker’s feelings as colors, sounds and flavors. Foil: A character who is meant to represent characteristics, values, ideas, etc. which are directly and diametrically opposed to those of another character, usually the protagonist. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. †¢ The noble, virtuous father Macduff provides an ideal foil for the villainous, childless Macbeth. Foreshadowing: Where future events in a story, or perhaps the outcome, are suggested by the author before they happen. Foreshadowing can take many forms and be accomplished in many ways, with varying degrees of subtlety. However, if the outcome is deliberately and explicitly revealed early in a story (such as by the use of a narrator or flashback structure), such information does not constitute foreshadowing. †¢ Willy’s concern for his car foreshadows his eventual means of suicide. Hyperbole: A description which exaggerates, usually employing extremes and/or superlatives to convey a positive or negative attribute; â€Å"hype. † †¢ The author uses hyperbole to describe Mr. Smith, calling him â€Å"the greatest human being ever to walk the earth. † Iambic pentameter: A poetic meter wherein each line contains ten syllables, as five repetitions of a two-syllable pattern in which the pronunciation emphasis is on the second syllable. †¢ Shakespeare wrote most of his dialogue in iambic pentameter, often having to adjust the order and nature of words to fit the syllable pattern, thus endowing the language with even greater meaning. Imagery: Language which describes something in detail, using words to substitute for and create sensory stimulation, including visual imagery and sound imagery. Also refers to specific and recurring types of images, such as food imagery and nature imagery. (Not all descriptions can rightly be called imagery; the key is the appeal to and stimulation of specific senses, usually visual. It is often advisable to specify the type of imagery being used, and consider the significance of the images themselves, to distinguish imagery from mere description. ) †¢ The author’s use of visual imagery is impressive; the reader is able to see the island in all its lush, colorful splendor by reading Golding’s detailed descriptions. Irony (a. k. a. Situational irony): Where an event occurs which is unexpected, in the sense that it is somehow in absurd or mocking opposition to what would be expected or appropriate. Mere coincidence is generally not ironic; neither is mere surprise, nor are any random or arbitrary occurrences. (Note: Most of the situations in the Alanis Morissette song are not ironic at all, which may actually make the song ironic in itself. ) See also Dramatic irony; Verbal irony. Metaphor: A direct relationship where one thing or idea substitutes for another. †¢ Shakespeare often uses light as a metaphor for Juliet; Romeo refers to her as the sun, as â€Å"a rich jewel in an Ethiop’s ear,† and as a solitary dove among crows. Mood: The atmosphere or emotional condition created by the piece, within the setting. Mood refers to the general sense or feeling which the reader is supposed to get from the text; it does not, as a literary element, refer to the author’s or characters’ state of mind. (Note that mood is a literary element, not a technique; the mood must therefore be described or identified. It would be incorrect to simply state, â€Å"The author uses mood. †) †¢ The mood of Macbeth is dark, murky and mysterious, creating a sense of fear and uncertainty. Motif: A recurring important idea or image. A motif differs from a theme in that it can be expressed as a single word or fragmentary phrase, while a theme usually must be expressed as a complete sentence. †¢ Blood is an important motif in A Tale of Two Cities, appearing numerous times throughout the novel. Onomatopoeia: Where sounds are spelled out as words; or, when words describing sounds actually sound like the sounds they describe. †¢ Ouch! EEK! Crash! Oxymoron: A contradiction in terms. †¢ Romeo describes love using several oxymorons, such as â€Å"cold fire,† â€Å"feather of lead† and â€Å"sick health,† to suggest its contradictory nature. Paradox: Where a situation is created which cannot possibly exist, because different elements of it cancel each other out. †¢ In 1984, â€Å"doublethink† refers to the paradox where history is changed, and then claimed to have never been changed. †¢ A Tale of Two Cities opens with the famous paradox, â€Å"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times. † Parallelism: Use of similar or identical language, structures, events or ideas in different parts of a text. Personification (I): Where inanimate objects or abstract concepts are seemingly endowed with human self-awareness; where human thoughts, actions, perceptions and emotions are directly attributed to inanimate objects or abstract ideas. (Not to be confused with anthropomorphism. ) Personification (II): Where an abstract concept, such as a particular human behavior or a force of nature, is represented as a person. †¢ The Greeks personified natural forces as gods; for example, the god Poseidon was the personification of the sea and its power over man. Plot: Sequence of events in a story. Most literary essay tasks will instruct the writer to â€Å"avoid plot summary;† the term is therefore rarely useful for response or critical analysis. When discussing plot, it is generally more useful to consider and analyze its structure, rather than simply recapitulate â€Å"what happens. † Point-of-view: The identity of the narrative voice; the person or entity through whom the reader experiences the story. May be third-person (no narrator; abstract narrative voice, omniscient or limited) or first-person (narrated by a character in the story or a direct observer). Point-of-view is a commonly misused term; it does not refer to the author’s or characters’ feelings, opinions, perspectives, biases, etc. Though it is written in third-person, Animal Farm is told from the limited point-of-view of the common animals, unaware of what is really happening as the pigs gradually and secretively take over the farm. Writing the story in first-person point-of-view enables the reader to experience the soldier’s fear and uncertainty, limiting the narrative to what only he saw, thought and felt during the battle. Protagonist: The main character in a story, the one with whom the reader is meant to identify. The person is not necessarily â€Å"good† by any conventional moral standard, but he/she is the person in whose plight the reader is most invested. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. ) Repetition: Where a specific word, phrase, or structure is repeated several times, usually in close proximity, to emphasize a particular idea. †¢ The repetition of the words â€Å"What if†¦Ã¢â‚¬  at the beginning of each line reinforces the speaker’s confusion and fear. Setting: The time and place where a story occurs. The setting can be specific (e. g. , New York City in 1930) or ambiguous (e. g. , a large urban city during economic hard times). Also refers directly to a description thereof. When discussing or analyzing setting, it is generally insufficient to merely identify the time and place; an analysis of setting should include a discussion of its overall impact on the story and characters. †¢ The novel is set in the South during the racially turbulent 1930’s, when blacks were treated unfairly by the courts. †¢ With the island, Golding creates a pristine, isolated and uncorrupted setting, in order to show that the boys’ actions result from their own essential nature rather than their environment. Simile: An indirect relationship where one thing or idea is described as being similar to another. Similes usually contain the words â€Å"like† or â€Å"as,† but not always. †¢ The simile in line 10 describes the lunar eclipse: â€Å"The moon appeared crimson, like a drop of blood hanging in the sky. † †¢ The character’s gait is described in the simile: â€Å"She hunched and struggled her way down the path, the way an old beggar woman might wander about. † Speaker: The â€Å"voice† of a poem; not to be confused with the poet him/herself. Analogous to the narrator in prose fiction. Structure: The manner in which the various elements of a story are assembled. †¢ The individual tales are told within the structure of the larger framing story, where the 29 travelers gather at the Inn at Southwark on their journey to Canterbury, telling stories to pass the time. †¢ The play follows the traditional Shakespearean five-act plot structure, with exposition in Act I, development in Act II, the climax or turning point in Act III, falling action in Act IV, and resolution in Act V. Symbolism: The use of specific objects or images to represent abstract ideas. This term is commonly misused, describing any and all representational relationships, which in fact are more often metaphorical than symbolic. A symbol must be something tangible or visible, while the idea it symbolizes must be something abstract or universal. (In other words, a symbol must be something you can hold in your hand or draw a picture of, while the idea it symbolizes must be something you can’t hold in your hand or draw a picture of. ) †¢ Golding uses symbols to represent the various aspects of human nature and civilization as they are revealed in the novel. The conch symbolizes order and authority, while its gradual deterioration and ultimate destruction metaphorically represent the boys’ collective downfall. Theme: The main idea or message conveyed by the piece. A theme should generally be expressed as a complete sentence; an idea expressed by a single word or fragmentary phrase is usually a motif. †¢ Orwell’s theme is that absolute power corrupts absolutely. †¢ The idea that human beings are essentially brutal, savage creatures provides the central theme of the novel. Tone: The apparent emotional state, or â€Å"attitude,† of the speaker/narrator/narrative voice, as conveyed through the language of the piece. Tone refers only to the narrative voice; not to the author or characters. It must be described or identified in order to be analyzed properly; it would be incorrect to simply state, â€Å"The author uses tone. † †¢ The poem has a bitter and sardonic tone, revealing the speaker’s anger and resentment. †¢ The tone of Gulliver’s narration is unusually matter-of-fact, as he seems to regard these bizarre and absurd occurrences as ordinary or commonplace. Tragedy: Where a story ends with a negative or unfortunate outcome which was essentially avoidable, usually caused by a flaw in the central character’s personality. Tragedy is really more of a dramatic genre than a literary element; a play can be referred to as a tragedy, but tragic events in a story are essentially part of the plot, rather than a literary device in themselves. When discussing tragedy, or analyzing a story as tragic, look to the other elements of the story which combine to make it tragic. Tragic hero/tragic figure: A protagonist who comes to a bad end as a result of his own behavior, usually cased by a specific personality disorder or character flaw. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. ) †¢ Willy Loman is one of the best-known tragic figures in American literature, oblivious to and unable to face the reality of his life. Tragic flaw: The single characteristic (usually negative) or personality disorder which causes the downfall of the protagonist. †¢ Othello’s tragic flaw is his jealousy, which consumes him so thoroughly that he is driven to murder his wife rather than accept, let alone confirm, her infidelity. (Although it is technically a literary element, the term is only useful for identification, as part of a discussion or analysis of character; it cannot generally be analyzed by itself. ) Verbal irony: Where the meaning of a specific expression is, or is intended to be, the exact opposite of what the words literally mean. (Sarcasm is a tone of voice that often accompanies verbal irony, but they are not the same thing. ) †¢ Orwell gives this torture and brainwashing facility the ironic title, â€Å"Ministry of Love. †